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Abstracts of Papers Presented at the 44th Annual Meeting
Austin, Texas
of the Society for Ethnomusicology
November 18-21, 1999[Abstracts are shown exactly as printed.--Web editor]
Contents Thursday, November 18 8:30 - 10:30 am 1A: Roundtable--Copyright and Conceptions of Intellectual Property in Cross-Cultural Perspective 1B: Music, Time and Place 1C: Issues in West African Music 1D: "The Green Fields of America:" North American Manifestations of Celtic and English Music 1E: Chinese and Japanese Music in Transnational Contexts 11:00 - 1:00 pm 2A: Copyright and Ownership in Transnational Perspective 2B: Race and Cuban Musical Discourse, Past and Present 2C: Women, Music and Performance in the Middle East 2D: Meaning and Emotion in Korean Music 2E: Narratives of Cultural Continuity: Four Moments in Yiddish Music 2:30 - 4:30 pm 3A: Nonference--Changing Copyright Laws and Their Implications for Ethnomusicology 3B: Issues in African Music 3C: Gender and Music 3D: Music in Religious Occasions 3E: Connecting Events Friday, November 19 8:30 - 10:30 am 4A: Ethnomusicology and History I: Ethnography and Historical Method 4B: Music and Ethnicity in the United States 4C: What you Mean, `We'?: Method, Goal, and Identity in Academic `Ethno' Ensembles 4D: Jazz, Blues and Hybridity 4E: Sound Engineering as Cultural Production: Technology, Performativity, Phenomenonology 11:00 - 1:00 pm 5A: Ethnomusicology and History II: The Use of Printed Sources in Ethnomusicology 5B: Transnational Processes and the Local Production of Popular Music 5C: Issues in Indonesian Music 5D: Cajun and Tejano Music 5E: Breakin' Out in a Cold Sweat: Authorship, Ownership and Agency in the Digital Age 5F: Theorizing Asian American Musics: Identity, Negotiations, Multiplicity 2:30 - 4:30 pm 6A: Ethnomusicology and History III: The Construction of History 6B: Dance and Social Meaning 6C: The Musical Indigenization of Christian Ritual 6D: Music, Community, and the Internet 6E: Performance of the Oral Tradition in Jewish Contexts Saturday, November 20 8:30 - 10:30 am 7A: Music and Emotion I 7B: Contest-ing Tradition: Cross-Cultural Studies of Musical Competition 7C: Music and Nationalism 7D: Issues in Indian Music 7E: Reflections on Ethnographic Method 7F: The Study of Musical Instruments 11:00 - 1:00 pm 8A: Music and Emotion II 8B: Music Theory and Social Meaning 8C: Music in Latin America 8D: Native American Music, Intertribalism, and Technology 8E: Talking About Timbre Sunday, November 21 8:30 - 10:30 am 9A: Music in Diaspora Communities 9B: Grey-Out, Creativity, and World Music 9C: Music and the Sacred 9D: The Social Significance of Style 9E: Issues of Authenticity: Three Asian Case Studies Abstracts Thursday, November 18 Roundtable 1A Copyright and Conceptions of Intellectual Property in Cross-cultural Perspective 8:30-10:30 Thursday, November 18 Chair: Jennifer Milioto, University of Chicago Anthony McCann, University of Limerick/Smithsonian Institution; Sherylle Mills, Smithsonian Institution; Nancy Guy, University of California, San Diego; Vasana de Mel, University of California, Los Angeles As Ethnomusicologists we are continually faced with distinct concepts of intellectual property in the various cultures that we investigate. We must navigate through each group's understanding of their music, not only out of respect for our informants, but also to further our understanding of music's position in culture. This conscientious approach to ethnomusicological study is often further complicated when dealing with popular musics and the various corporations, copyright systems, and other institutions involved in the industry. Understanding the individual's concept of their cultural production, while also considering cultural products in relation to existing, or non-existing, copyright laws, can at times be an extremely frustrating task. This roundtable discussion will present several views of copyright in cross-cultural perspective. We seek not only to investigate the idea of "copyright" as culturally based, but also plan to discuss ways of handling the variety of legal systems, or lack there of, while respecting our informants' rights. Topics such as piracy in Eastern Europe, the concept of "copy" in Japan and it's resultant effect on popular music production, and a report on the legal case involving the Ami tribe singers and Enigma's record label, will serve as a location to begin discussing larger issues and broader cultural areas. It is hoped that a variety of ethnomusicologists will share their experiences in order to improve our understanding of the position of copyright and concepts of intellectual property in a variety of cultures. Session 1B Music, Time and Place 8:30-10:30 Thursday, November 18 Chair: Thomas Turino, University of Illinois 8:30 1B1 (Dis)playing the tama: Finnish Musicians Learning Senegalese Music Tina K. Ramnarine, Queen's University of Belfast A Finnish designer, Lindfors, exhibited sculptures representing insects at a gallery in the centre of Helsinki (1991). Lindfors asked a Senegalese musician living in Finland, Badu N'Diay, to play the tama (talking drum) at the preview. N'Diay interpreted Lindfors's creative vision as a wish to evoke an atmosphere of the exotic. In their attention to the art of mingling, viewers hardly noticed the exotic touch. The tama playing expertise. In the exhibition, the tama was part of the display. In another context, those sounds have been not just evocative but influential in the creative expressions of Finnish rock and folk musicians. Finnish rock musicians who had played an important role in the 1960s folk revival, were exploring `world' music by the late 1980s and collaborating, for example, with Senegalese musicians like N'Diay. Such collaborations have been seen as providing opportunities to create new musical expressions and models for aspiring musicians. This paper will examine case studies of Finnish musicians learning to play Senegalese music through jamming in Dakar's nightclubs, establishing Finnish-Senegalese groups in Helsinki, or undertaking formal studies at the Sibelius Academy where workshops on `world musics' (including Senegalese traditions) have been organized. The interfaces between perceptions both of `music' and `race', musical transmission, and creativity will be explored. 9:00 1B2 Movement, Land, and Yolngu Song Steven Knopoff, University of Adelaide Songs concerning traveling, or movement, may be found in many cultures, but are especially prominent in a number of Australian Aboriginal song traditions. Movement in (and of) the environment is manifested in many ways, and at many levels, in the ceremonial songs of the Yolngu people of Northeast Arnhem Land. Focusing on the public song performances that take place each day during long Yolngu funerals, this paper considers a number of ways in which movement/travel is embodied in song performance, including: Different types of movement/travel that are incorporated in song performance; Use of particular song-related metaphors that entail the transformation (and transportation) of the human spirit into other forms, and to other places in the environment; Conscious use of movement-related metaphor and imagery to affect the aesthetic shape of individual song performances; Allusion to movement from disparate places towards a common point to imply different types of relations between Yolngu groups; and Musical conventions associated with particular types of song-related movement. Drawing upon the work of Warner, Keen, Morphy, and my own field work, the paper contrasts the role of movement through the environment in quotidian public song performance with the use of sung traveling in the climactic conclusions of funerals and in sacred song performance. The resulting picture of Yolngu song performance reveals a rich, multi-level system in which the interchange of knowledge and human relationships (expressed in words, musical sound and dance) are inseparable from the connecting passageways in the environment through which communication and the acquisition of knowledge take place. 9:30 1B3 Nuevo Flamanco: Embracing the Future/Reclaiming the Past Loren Chuse, University of California, Los Angeles Nuevo flamenco is the term given to recent fusions of flamenco with other popular musical styles. Beginning in the mid 1970s with the experimentation of guitarist Paco de Lucía and legendary singer Camarón, these fusions represent styles as diverse as blues; rock; Latin American genres; African and Near Eastern musics. The creators of these hybrid mixes, many of them the younger generation of distinguished lineages of flamenco performers, grew up steeped in tradition yet profoundly influenced by popular music. They intentionally fuse new genres with flamenco to express a cosmopolitan sense of identity and affinities, in sophisticated hybrid musics which have attracted a wide and diverse audience. This paper will discuss the music of two groups currently popular in Spain: Ketama and Radio Tarifa. Ketama pioneered the mix of salsa with flamenco in the mid 1980s as well as collaborations with African music. Radio Tarifa, while also experimenting with Latin American music, is known for its fusions of flamenco with Near Eastern and Early musics, which celebrate of a shared cultural heritage within the Mediterranean. Both Ketama and Radio Tarifa embrace and celebrate the importance of cultures whose contribution to Spanish culture has been ignored and/or rejected. I will discuss the work of these pioneering groups, who actively negotiate sophisticated, nuanced definitions of identity within the Nuevo Flamanco. In an era of increased immigration and social change, their music mediates complex processes of transformation and reflects a cross cultural awareness, nourished by tradition, that is deeply Spanish while at the same time consciously global in its perspective. Session 1C Issues in West African Music 8:30-10:30 Thursday, November 18 Chair: David Locke, Tufts University 8:30 1C1 The "Common Stock" of Ewondo Speech Surrogate Drum Phrases in Cameroon Paul Neeley, University of Ghana at Legon The Ewondo people of Cameroon have made extensive use of the nkul, the hollowed-log idiophone referred to as a "talking drum." My research centered on the repertoire of several men in nearby towns, who had a total of at least 200 drum phrases ("drum phrase" is defined in the paper). Some speech surrogate phrases are particular to a certain drummer, some to a certain location, some to a certain event, while other phrases are drummed in multiple contexts. A "common stock" of speech surrogate drum phrases exists, shared to some extent across boundaries of geography and generation, which has been passed down through aural tradition. In a single extended performance (3 minutes), the old "common stock" patterns may be freely mixed with other drum phrases that will not be recognized outside the immediate area. Examining historical research on this topic, I found about 15 phrases, some published as early as 1911, that correlated closely to phrases that I learned in these communities near Yaounde. So documentation exists for nearly a century of some of these "common stock" drum phrases. Many of the linguistic formulas are applicable in numerous situations, where the meanings are subject to processes of recontextualization. For example, a command to "wake up!" carries different connotations whether drummed to the community in early morning or addressed to the deceased at a funeral. The concept of common stock phrases is found in certain African song genres as well as speech surrogate drumming. 9:00 1C2 Translation in Language and Concept: "Master Drummer" in Ewe Music Matthew Talmage, University of California, Santa Barbara A viable concern while relating music from one culture to another, is what may be `lost in translation'. However, as is the case of the title `Master Drummer' in Ewe music, the process of translation has involved the addition of meanings to the term. The process whereby connotations become associated with a term is dynamic. Just as a music and its respective music culture adapts to social changes, so too do the terms and meanings describing the music and music culture. The term Master Drummer was first applied to Ewe music under specific circumstances in A.M. Jones' 1959 book Studies in African Music I argue that the connotations today of the honorary title, Master Drummer, harken back to Jones' book rather than the roles apparent in the organization of an Ewe music ensemble. By comparing the connotations in general use with the developments in Ewe music, the scholarly community can assess the appropriateness of the title `Master Drummer' to satisfactorily represent the role of a prominent figure in the organization and execution of Ewe music. This inquiry necessarily begins with such questions as: How does one qualify as a Master Drummer? What are the duties, or more importantly, what is expected of a Master Drummer? Is the role of the Master Drummer apparent in all Ewe music making or only under certain circumstances? 9:30 1C3 Loss and Survival in a Royal Ghanaian Drumming Tradition Alexander Gelfand, University of Illinois The small kingdom of Akuapem in southern Ghana has been subject to a wide variety of external influences over the past several hundred years. Populated by successive waves of immigrants representing different ethnic groups and ruled by various indigenous states, the Akan-speaking people of Akuapem have never been isolated from the world beyond their homeland. Nonetheless, European contact and the subsequent introduction of cocoa as a cash crop in the 19th century had a revolutionary effect on Akuapem society, introducing new sources of power and greatly accelerating the growth of entrepreneurial capitalism in the region. This, in turn, contributed to decline in the prestige of the Akuapem chiefs, patrons of the royal Akan talking drum tradition known as fontomfrom. Neither the decline in the status of the chiefs nor an influx of foreign commodities, however, has led to the end of fontomfrom. New performance opportunities have arisen even as attrition has occurred among drum texts and repertoire, and fontomfrom remains a powerful marker of status and identity in the region. Indeed, capitalism may pose a lesser threat to indigenous music in Akuapem than either Christianity or Western education, both of which are blamed locally for the demise of various musical genres. The reasons for this are complex, and are located both in indigenous attitudes toward wealth and power, and in the nature of fontomfrom itself. 10:00 1C4 Schisms, Unity and Musical Representations in the Fanti Society of Ghana Kenichi Tsukada, Hiroshima City University Historical sources indicate that two kinds of social forces have operated in the Fanti society of Ghana during the past few hundred years. There have been social forces which have driven the society to split into several factions. These forces are found in the continual disputes over the inheritance of chieftaincy and the longstanding feuds between military organizations called asafo companies. On the other hand, there have been opposite social forces that have been working to deter such schisms and to unite various factions. The annual festival Fetu Afahye, associated with the celebrations of chieftains, has stressed the importance of peace and unity among different factions and groups. The matrilineal clan ebusua has lessened the tensions between patrilineal asafo companies by rendering members of different companies matrilineally related to each other as clan members. These two kinds of social forces significantly find cultural expressions in two important genres of music: the military drum ensemble asafo and $B!! (J the royal drum ensemble fontomfrom. Analysis of song texts highlights the contrast between the two genres of music. Asafo song texts generally deal with topics concerning conflicts between asafo companies and related historical events to raise morale. In contrast, fontomfrom song texts are mainly designed for entertainment, such as praise songs for chieftains. These texts seem to have contributed to uniting different factions by entertaining them together on joyful ceremonial occasions. The paper thus demonstrates that two genres of musical representation in Fanti society are effectively geared to two kinds of opposing social forces. Session 1D "The Green Fields of America:" North American Manifestations of Celtic and English Music 8:30-10:00 Thursday, November 18 Chair: Jennifer DeLapp, University of Maryland, College Park Traditional music from Celtic and Anglo-Saxon regions have encountered "New World" settings since settlers from Northern Europe first sailed west across the Atlantic. These traditions have thrived in a variety of settings; understanding the social and musical significance of these changes requires both historical and ethnographic approaches. Falling under the conference theme of "historical ethnomusicology," this panel will demonstrate the interface of history and ethnography through four case studies. Lucy Long examines the intersections of Irish dance with the post-Riverdance expectations of Midwestern dance students; Suzanne Camino looks at traditional Irish sessions as adapted to the 1990s Midwestern pub scene; Jennifer DeLapp's study of nineteenth-century Shaker music examines Anglo- and Irish-American traditional dance music in a Utopian religious setting; and Cory Thorne describes the history of Newfoundland musical identity and its recent, vital incorporation of rock 'n' roll. 8:30 1D1 Worldly Traditions Transformed: Music and Dance in Shaker Worship Jennifer DeLapp, University of Maryland, College Park Shakers in Western New York in the nineteenth century were surrounded by a thriving traditional music scene that included fiddling, singing, and square dancing. While dancing was part of Shaker worship, instruments were forbidden before the 1860s; in the preceding decades, a substantial tradition of sung dance music developed. Much of Shaker dance music suggests the reels, marches, and jigs that came with the immigration waves from England, Scotland, and Ireland. With typical Shaker invention, a "letteral" notation system was developed for notating these tunes; with typical Shaker industry, thousands of tunes were gathered into hundreds of notebooks, like musical samplers. Sister Ann Maria Love (b. 1835), a Shaker at the Groveland community in Western New York from age 7 to 24, filled two books with these tunes--about 300 tunes in all. Some have words; others are wordless and were meant for dancing. Through an examination of her tune collections, this paper describes the vital role music played in Shaker religious life, and suggests connections to other traditional music of nineteenth-century New York State. Documents for, about, and by the Groveland Shakers provide contemporary accounts of the community's religious and musical practices. Census records and demographic studies, and local histories have supplied additional information about the people of the now-defunct Groveland community and its surrounding region. 9:00 1D2 Celtic Expansion and Contested Meanings: Irish Dance Classes in the Midwest Lucy M. Long, Bowling Green State University The recent popularity of Riverdance has swelled the classes in Irish dance schools in the U.S. The expectations of these newcomers, particularly those who are not of Irish heritage, are sometimes in conflict with those of dance instructors and other participants. These conflicts represent the intersection of different ethnicities, personal histories, worldviews, and aesthetics systems. Through an ethnographic analysis of a midwestern Irish dance school, this paper examines this intersection and the resulting negotiations occurring between teachers, students, parents, and the organizations governing Irish dance competitions and teacher certification. The dance school teaches Irish dance as a cultural form as well as an art form. While the sated purpose and focus is the training of children and adults in the techniques of traditional solo competitive step-dance, the school also instills a sense of Irish identity and pride in that identity among the students. Though their teaching methods, patterns of interacting, and expectations of the students, the teachers transmit perspectives and attitudes that can be identified as Irish. This "Irishness" is sometimes challenged now that audiences for Irish dance have broadened beyond the traditional ethnic base. The resulting negotiations highlight issues surrounding the invention and construction of traditions and cultural identities, the commodification of traditional forms, and the transmission of aesthetics and ideology through artistic performance. 9:30 1D3 "We'll Rant and We'll Roar:" Newfoundland Politics, Popular Music, and Identity Cory W. Thorne, Bowling Green State University Newfoundland music is well known in the academic community for its unique identity and continued emphasis on traditional practices. It has not been widely studied, however, in terms of the incorporation of traditional into contemporary popular styles or in terms of its use as a political tool. Until recently, the isolation of Newfoundland outports protected this music and culture from change. Increasing access to Canadian and American media now concern Newfoundlanders who fear a loss of unique identity. The study of popular music in Newfoundland will show that despite changing styles and tastes, Newfoundland music is likely to survive. Through the bands Great Big Sea and The Punters I will show how Newfoundland musicians have appropriated non-Newfoundland genres to fill their needs. This is rock'n'roll music, but it contains significant Newfoundland musical and textural elements, elements that are necessary in maintaining and promoting Newfoundland identity. I will discuss the history of Newfoundland as a British colony, independent nation, and Canadian province. This background, along with recent developments in the fishery and in Newfoundland and Canadian politics, is necessary to explain the continued emphasis on unique identity in Newfoundland music. By combining these areas, the music of contemporary popular bands and the political history of Newfoundland, I will argue that Newfoundland popular music is central in helping Newfoundlanders remain strong and proud, despite continued economic and social oppression. 10:00 1D4 Can We Turn the Regular Music on Now?: Transformation and Accommodation in an Irish-American Pub Session Suzanne Camino, University of Michigan The Irish pub session, a result of the Irish Traditional music revival of the latter half of the century, has become an important venue for the performance and transmission of Irish traditional music. Sessions in Ireland operate within the parameters of an intricate etiquette which has been well-documented by scholarly observers. This shared understanding among musicians, audience and publicans regulates both musical and non-musical dynamics and maintains an order which allows the tradition to flourish within agreed-upon bounds. The American version of the Irish pub session is often more contentious. Several factors contribute to a lack of consensus among participants. These include: varied definitions of sessions; economic concerns of both pub owners and the musicians; and widely varying experiences and definitions of Irish music. This paper explores the phenomenon of the Irish traditional session as it is presently configured in the United States by tracing the evolution over eight years of one session in a midwestern town into three affinity groups with overlapping, yet distinct memberships. It presents the problem of negotiating a traditional session from the perspectives of the musicians as well as the pub owners who variously employ, encourage or tolerate their presence. The discussion also considers the effect of continuous renegotiation on musical factors such as repertoire, tempo, instrumentation and style and non-musical factors such as motivation, concerns with authenticity, and personal musical satisfaction. Session 1E Chinese and Japanese Music in Transnational Contexts 8:30-10:00 Thursday, November 18 Chair: Fred Lieberman, University of California at Santa Cruz 8:30 1E1 Towards a Global Music: the "Universal Egg" and Toru Takemitsu's November Steps Joann Koh, Mount Vernon Nazarene College What defines Asian Music or American Music? Can it be argued that each of us combines various nationality, class, ethnic, religious, racial, and sexual dimensions in our identity? Rather than confined to alternatives of uniqueness and separatism, artists can acknowledge the continually shifting reality, complexity, and the totality of their experiences. This paper discusses Toru Takemitsu's view (also echoed by Chou Wen-Chung and Ton de Leeuw) on the possibilities for musical acculturation between East and West, including the convergence of all cultures towards eventually forming the "universal egg." The union of two cultures is a first step toward forming a universal culture. November Steps, written for biwa, shakuhachi, and western orchestra (1967), was a vindication of Takemitsu's vision of a global music where sound in the East and sound in the West could be combined in a single piece of music. In this paper, I will examine how Takemitsu creates an interface between western and eastern instruments through their disparity in time, space, color, and tone. The meaning of art in this context does not rely on compromises, but rather on the recognition and appreciation of the essence of different cultures and styles. Takemitsu's essays dealing with the creation of music and issues of contemporary music are compelling to those mindful of intercultural cross-fertilization in the arts. 9:00 1E2 Researching Traditional Japanese Music Culture in the International Context: Minoru Miki and the Adelaide Festival A. Kimi Coaldrake, University of Adelaide In March 1994, as part of the biennial Festival of Arts, the city of Adelaide in South Australia reverberated to the sounds of music from Asia, Pacific and Europe. The "Two Worlds' Music Program" at the Adelaide Town Hall was one of the main attractions. It featured the Japanese composer Minoru Miki and Pro Musica Nipponia, the ensemble of traditional Japanese instruments in ten days of concerts and lectures. At the same event Australian ensembles presenting repertoire by leading Australian composers such as Peter Sculthorpe and Carl Vine in addition to Japanese composers including Toru Takemitsu revealed strong cross-cultural influences in their compositional processes. Musicians and composers from both countries welcomed the opportunity for intensive collaboration. This paper explores the cultural, disciplinary and pragmatic considerations involved in the development of an integrated approach for understanding processes in the postwar internationalisation of traditional Japanese music. It focuses on Minoru Miki whose work has received little scholarly attention but who, himself a composer, for the past thirty years has energetically pursued a personal quest to "internationalise" traditional Japanese music in order to reach audiences both inside and outside Japan. Discussion of events at The Adelaide Festival highlights the range of issues in an inclusive approach for the understanding of processes of creation, presentation and reception of Miki's music thus bringing into perspective Miki's grand vision for the full recognition of Japanese music in the international context in the twenty-first century. 9:30 1E3 Healing Sounds: Chinese Music and the Marketing of New Age Ideology Thomas Brett, New York University The past several years have seen a proliferation of world music recordings, among them a spate of ostensibly traditional Chinese music releases from the Wind Record Company in Taiwan. These recordings feature both traditional Chinese instruments and a variety of electronically-produced and sequenced sounds. The recordings are also characterized by a marketing strategy--made explicit primarily through the program notes and cover art--which indexes stereotyped notions of "Chineseness". In this paper, I discuss in more detail the nature of these recordings and, based on my analysis, argue that through their marketing and music styles, the Wind record releases cater to what might be called a "New Age" ideology among an international listening public. This New Age ideology equates Chinese philosophy, cosmology and world views, natural landscapes, and cultural practices with generalized notions of spirituality and healing. In short, through the lengthy program notes and suggestive cover art, the Wind Records releases participate in and help create a New Age discourse which renders China as an exoticized cultural Other. The structure of the paper is threefold. First, I present a brief overview of Chinese art aesthetics, and discuss the tradition of program notes in Chinese music. Following this, several Wind Records releases are examined in terms of their programmatic and musical content. Finally, I speculate on the connection between these recordings and the New Age ideology of healing. My findings suggest that the intersection of New Age ideology and world music in the global marketplace is a fruitful area for further ethnomusicological inquiry. 10:00 1E4 Local Mutation and Transnational Reconfiguration: The Case of The Peony Pavilion Isabel K. F. Wong, University of Illinois In the summer of 1998, the Shanghai cultural authorities refused to allow actors of the Shanghai Kunju company to come to New York to perform the Kun musical drama in 55 scenes "The Peony Pavilion," a production which had been commissioned by the Lincoln Center; since then, "The Peony Pavilion" has become the locus of a debate about issues of local ownership and transnational appropriation. The U.S. premier of Peter Sellars' version of "The Peony Pavilion" at Berkeley in March, 1999 further fueled the controversy. In China itself, this 16th-century libretto has never been performed in its entirety, and has gone through numerous mutations throughout the centuries, the most radical version being a 1982 production by the Shanghai Kunju Company. In this paper I will use each of these three 20th-century productions of the 16th-century work as a framework to discuss a set of local/transnational issues: 1) The 1982 Shanghai production was a revised and condensed version of the original libretto staged with western staging techniques and musical practice, while retaining traditional singing and performance practice. My discussion will focus on the impact of cultural contact and social changes on artistic product. 2) The aborted Lincoln Center production laid claims to being an authentic cultural performance, and my discussion will focus on issues of authenticity and ownership of a reconstructed artistic product intended for a transnational audience. 3) The Peter Sellars production represented an attempt to reinterpret meaning and value of 16th century China from a post-modernist, cross-cultural perspective, seeking to affirm a global consensus on value. Here my discussion will focus on a reconfiguration of meaning and value under the banner of globalization. Session 2A Copyright and Ownership in Transnational Perspective 11:00-1:00 Thursday, November 18 Chair: Louise Meintjes, Duke University 11:00 2A1 The End of Music as We Know It?: MP3, Piracy, and the Challenge to the Established Order Bradley C. Shank, University of California, Los Angeles Julian Dibbell of Rolling Stone recently wrote, "Thanks to the MP3, this could finally be the end of the music business as we know it" (1998:102). The attitude of this headline, with its tone of forthcoming profound and positive change, is typical of public opinions toward technological developments in music culture of the late 20th century. MP3, a new internet audio technology, is another in a long line of new technologies this century which stands to greatly affect the ways in which music is conceived, composed, produced, and received. In this paper, I plan to explore the issues that surround the development of this new technology in order to illuminate the enormous changes occurring in the musical cultures of the West. I will first explain MP3, discussing the technology, its history, and the ways people use it, both legal and illegal. I will then discuss the ways in which these changes are affecting music in our culture in relation to performers, audience, and the great mediator of music--the recording industry. Informed by the ideas of Theodor Adorno and Simon Frith, I will argue that consumers and musicians may finally be poised to realign their position in our musical culture, once again becoming the dominant agents in informing processes of musical production and distribution. 11:30 2A2 Music Piracy, Copyright Law and the Musicians in Between Alex Perullo, Indiana University In Tanzania, as in other parts of the world, copyright infringement and music piracy inhibits `musicians' ability to earn a living from their music. Though musicians may place copyright notices on the cassette tapes and compact discs they sell, there are few local or governmental institutions that effectively enforce copyright law. As a result, musicians often find their music being illegally copied and sold both locally and nationally. This situation forces musicians to either develop their own ways of dealing with copyright infringement or ignore the matter entirely. This paper explores the way in which popular Tanzanian musicians deal with music piracy and, at the same time, addresses their perspectives of copyright law. Too often African governments utilize copyright policies, such as those developed by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), that are heavily based on `western' models. Though these policies are effective in certain countries, historically, they have been ineffective in hindering music piracy and copyright infringement in African nations. Therefore, I argue that indigenous explanations of intellectual property rights can provide a broader understanding of copyright law and can help inform intellectual property right debates in African countries. 12:00 2A3 An Argentine Copyright Adventure: Do You Really Have What it Takes to Study Popular Music? Jane L. Florine, Chicago State University In the summer of 1998, I spent two months in Argentina with a specific mission in mind: I needed to obtain copyright permissions to publish several different song lyrics, along with their corresponding translations and musical transcriptions, in a book I am writing on Argentine cuarteto music. I knew that the process would entail going to SADAIC, the national songwriters' association, in Buenos Aires. Since I needed to obtain releases for some long interview transcripts as well, I also planned to spend considerable time in Córdoba, the site of my research, tracking down musicians and songwriters at nigh-long dances. Another project was to see if I could include a compact disc with my book. In this paper, I describe what I underwent during my copyright quest to get what I needed. Among other things, I explain how I wrote my own permission letters/translations, pleaded with publishing/record companies, received little besides reprimands from SADAIC, found that two songs were registered in Chile, and dealt with a star singer's lawyer. I then give practical suggestions to future copyright-seekers in the field of popular music. Topics addressed are how to plan ahead before traveling, what kind of information/permissions to collect, how to put together sample forms, what equipment, paperwork, and resources to bring along, how to contact and deal with state agencies, and local confusion of terminology regarding copyright. Session 2B Race and Cuban Musical Discourse, Past and Present 11:00-1:00 Thursday, November 18 Chair: Robin Moore, Temple University With this panel we propose to focus on issues of race affecting the creation and conceptualization of Cuban music from a number of distinct and complementary perspectives. Ben Lapidus considers racial tensions surrounding government-sponsored folk music festivals in rural eastern Cuba. David Garcia examines emic categories of "white" and "black" music in commercial dance repertory of the early 1950s. Robin Moore discusses discourse about race and national culture among art music composers and intellectuals of the 1930s, while Lisa Knauer considers the varying racialized meanings of Afrocuban drumming traditions as they have been contextually and geographically displaced to the eastern United States. The participants focus on diverse time periods and forms of musical expression but jointly consider issues of (regional national, subcultural) identity and the role of music in defining shifting social boundaries. 11:00 2B1 Music, Race, and Cuban Conjuntos in Havana, 1948-1952: A Historical Perspective on Contemporary Salsa Aesthetics David Garcia, CUNY Graduate School This paper situates contemporary salsa music within a broader context, comparing the racial and social implications of stylistic preferences among performers in New York and in two bands from Havana. The perspectives of New York musicians on approaches to instrumental and vocal improvisation as well as to ensemble playing as discussed by Christopher Washburne are compared to the those of older Cuban musicians whom I have interviewed regarding the same issues within conjuntos (an ensemble type) of the late- 1940s and early- 1950s. My comparison shows that while the same stylistic traits are valued by these New York and older-generation Cuban musicians, the latter group expresses these values in overtly racialized terms. Specifically, the conjuntos whose styles they value are said to perform "musica negra" or "black music" (one example being Arsenio Rodriguez y Su Conjunto), while conjuntos whose styles are not valued are said to perform "musica blanca" or "white music" (for instance La Sonora Matancera). The paper goes on to show that these racial characterizations have little to do with the racial profile of the musicians themselves--given that both groups were either all-black or mixed--and had more to do with the venues and audiences with which they were associated as well as their overall sound. 11:30 2B2 Travelling Diasporic Cultures: Rumba, Community and Identity in New York and Havana Lisa Knauer, New York University This paper will analyze the resurgence and persistence of traditional Afrocuban rumba in the New York area and in Havana to explore how musical and other cultural practices are used to create and negotiate identities in and between homeland and diaspora. I will look at the various registers that rumba and other racially-marked cultural practices occupy--staged folkloric performances, tourist productions, more spontaneous occurrences--and explore how rumba is engaged and viewed by both participants and non-participants. It is an important trope in the popular imagination: historically, rumba is associated with the urban underclass and seen as exotic, backward, or simply dangerous. On the other hand, it has been enshrined as a national folkloric dance in Cuba and promoted globally. My paper will briefly trace the history of rumba in Cuba and its recreation in the diasporic community in New York, looking at how rumba has been used to construct cubanidad in both places. I stress that rumba's role as a symbol of national identity must be seen against the backdrop of the complex and often contradictory attitudes about race in Cuba and in the diaspora. In Cuba, rumba is increasingly affected by the growing tourist/dollar economy. In New York/New Jersey, I examine rumba as a site of contestation and negotiation between different vintages of Cuban immigrants, and between Cubans and non-Cubans. I also explore rumba as a medium of exchange between homeland and diaspora, and as a commodity in the globalization of Caribbean culture. 12:00 2B3 Changüi and the Racial Categorization of Folklore in Guantánamo, Cuba Ben Lapidus, CUNY Graduate School During the central event of the annual cultural festival in Guantánamo, Cuba 1998, festival directors and local government officials chose to crown an internationally known white performer from Havana as the queen of musica campesina. This musician performed a version of musica campesina analogous to Garth Brooks' version of country music in the United States. Local Afrocuban musicians felt that the decision to honor her was based on racist favoritism and an obsolete paradigm which treats musica campesina as a singularly white musical practice. Others attributed the performer's coronation to the centuries-old rivalry that exists between the capital region and the Eastern provinces. More discourse on music, race, and culture surrounded the song writing competition for changui during the festival. Performed exclusively in Guantanamo, changui is believed to be the older sibling or parent of the son, the dominant national musical genre. Throughout the competition, songs were presented which represented fusions of son and changui. The judges for the competition were forced to confront the issue of evaluating a musical tradition in the face of modernity and change. Conflict arose due to the fact that judges from the capital saw this musical mixture as positive innovation. The same pieces were deemed faulty by local judges because they were a mishmash of styles rather than "pure" changui. 12:30 2B4 Musical Minorismo and Racial Discourse in Havana of the 1930s Robin Moore, Temple University This paper briefly examines a widespread nationalist artistic movement in Cuba of the 1930s known as minorismo or vanguardismo. The composers, painters, and literary figures of this group represented the elite of Cuban society and often figured as prominent community representatives. They espoused some of the most liberal middle-class views of the day, especially in terms of Afrocuban art and its centrality to national expression. Minoristas often used working-class Afrocuban music as a form of inspiration, but reworked selected sounds and images associated with it into compositions influenced by cubism, primitivism, and serialism. They hoped in this way to reconcile conflicting desires: on the one hand, that of creating "universal" modern art acceptable to the European and North American avant garde, and on the other to generate works with populist appeal and social relevance within their own country. My presentation provides an overview of the musical imagery found in literary and visual production of prominent minorista artists, and then concentrates on: 1) the contradictory attitudes of group members towards Afrocuban culture; and 2) the critiques leveled against them by the middle-class white and black communities. I suggest that even in their attempts to promote certain representations of Afrocuban culture as national expression in the face of opposition, figures such as Alejo Carpentier, Amadeo Roldan, and Alejandro Garcia Catural demonstrated the extent of racial intolerance in Cuban society. Their ambivalent views of Afrocuban culture speak to fundamental divisions of class and race that continue to affect attitudes in the Caribbean. Session 2C Women, Music and Performance in the Middle East 11:00-12:30 Thursday, November 18 Chair: Margaret Rausch, Free University of Berlin The purpose of this panel is to focus attention on women musicians in the Middle East. Even in scholarly literature, Middle Eastern women have often been represented in a stylistically orientalist fashion, usually as passive and erotic objects. Criticism of this kind of scholarship has led many scholars working in cultural studies to reevaluate women's agency and subjectivity in their daily lives and the implications of this in the study of cultural and social change. The papers in our panel seek to add to this scholarship by showing how women performers in the Middle East actively negotiate their performances: Margaret Rausch will explore the subjectivity of Berber female performers and how a talented singer helped develop the performer profession; Inis Wienrich will map how well-known Lebanese singer Feiruz creates her image; Sevhar Besiroglu will explore the historical development of the tradition of Ottoman women musicians, and I will disucss contemporary women poet-singers in Turkey. 11:00 2C1 Turkish Women Poet-Singers: Negotiation of Gender & Genre Jennifer Petzen, University of Washington Encouraged by official state discourse promising equality for women and influenced by state-sponsored media coverage of folk artists in the 1950's and 60's, several Turkish women began performing as ashiks, or professional traveling poet-singers. However, performing as women posed various and obvious problems, according to the women I interviewed during field work in 1996 and 1998. Learning the main genres is traditionally done by a period of apprenticeship, which requires travelling with a master ashik. None of the women I spoke with had any kind of apprenticeship, and all spoke about the difficulties of learning the genres that make an ashik a master in the eyes of his/her peers. One of these genres is the hikaye, or prose romance, which often features the often tragic life experiences of the ashik who is performing (Basgoz 1983; Gunay 1995). The women said they never learned how to perform the hikaye, yet their life stories contained the same ethos of suffering and tragedy as the hikayes performed professionally by the men. In this paper, I will explore the life-story of Surmelican Kaya as part of the hikaye tradition and discuss how genres, far from being rigid categories, are processes of becoming: continually being negotiated by performer and spectators, including researchers. 11:30 2C2 Musical Performance & Creative Process: A Berber Poetess & Professional Singer Margaret Rausch, Free University of Berlin The role of subjectivity in the choices made by performers, composers, poets and music production agents together with "the conflicting lines of social influence, bringing them into multiple, often overlapping identities and collectivities" has more recently been underscored by Middleton. As he points out further that "neither for them nor for their music are the simple categories of `mass' or `individual' appropriate" (1990:45). Gender, as it effects or is effected by musical performance and production, has also been an area of growing concern in the literature on musical production and performance (Koskoff, 1989) which is of particular pertinence with regard to the subject of this paper. Moroccan Arab shikhat and Berber raisat, professional female Moroccan singers, like their very early slave-girl and more recent Rai predecessors, despite their marginal existence and the illicit messages of their lyrics, have enchanted public and private audiences with their song and dance since the fifties (Kapchan, 1996). Drawing on the works mentioned above and fieldwork data, this paper will explore the musical performance and creative process of the Berber poetess and singer Raisa Ruqiya ad-Dimsiriyya, who despite illiteracy and rural origin, was not only instrumental in the emergence and development of the Berber female musical performer profession, but who also composes her own song lyrics with which she has delighted Moroccan and international audiences in cabarets, clubs and concert halls in major urban centers in Morocco, Europe and Canada. She has also joined the ranks of men and women professional musical performers regularly producing cassettes and videos. 12:00 2C3 The Lebanese Singer Fayruz: The Creation of an Image Inis Wienrich, University of Bamberg This presentation introduces the example of a well-known professional female singer. More than a singer with individual musical qualities and a unique voice, Fayruz gained the status of a national--Lebanese as well as Arab--symbol. In my presentation I will describe her career and personal style as a singer. Special attention will be paid to two aspects. The first one approaches the question of her own participation in the whole complex of musical creativity. As many other--female as well as male--Arab singers, Fayruz does not write and compose herself. However, the rendition of a precomposed song is shaped by the musical behavior and individual style of the singer. Behavior and style are linked to the process of image creation. Different levels interact here. These include the different roles of the person concerned--a professional musician, a superstar, a woman, mother and wife, and a public and politically engaged person--and the possible creators of images, like the person herself, her husband, journalists, or the audience. The study aims to demonstrate how images are constructed and which symbols are used. The careful choice of performance occasion and music will be examined, as well as the behavior during a performance and as a public person in general. This includes language, gestures, and dress in addition to the analysis of selected songtexts and roles of Fayruz in theater plays and musicals. 12:30 2C4 Ottoman Classical Music & Women Sehvar Besiroglu, Harvard University Among the practitioners of Ottoman-Turkish Classical Music, both in composition and in performance, there were numerous woman musicians who made a great contribution during the Ottoman Empire and increasingly more after Turkeys transition to a republican state in the 1920s. Despite the importance of their contribution, there is a lack of scholarly studies on this issue. In this paper, I will first present a brief historical survey of woman musicians and, examine their social backgrounds then will analyze their music in terms of the Turkish Modal system, called makam. I will also present similar information about the European women musicians of corresponding periods and provide a comparison between them and their Ottoman-Turkish counterparts. Session 2D Meaning and Emotion in Korean Music 11:00-1:00 Thursday, November 18 Chair: Andrew P. Killick, Florida State University The conference theme "Theories of Music and Emotion" promises to yield much when illuminated by instances from Korea, where both music and the discourse surrounding it are often highly emotive. Recognizing that the emotions attached to music arise in part from the meanings attributed to it, and that theories of emotion in music must account for those meanings as a source of emotional responses, this panel focuses on "meaning and emotion" in a variety of contexts representing some of the ways in which Koreans, past and present, have engaged with their music--and also struggled to define what music is properly `theirs'. Beginning with two wide-ranging studies of the emotional meanings attached to Korean music in general, we proceed with more specific examinations of particular emotional meanings as they appear on every level from the individual musical tone to the overarching ideology governing musical activity. 11:00 2D1 "It's in the Air we Breath:" Korean Perceptions of Korean Music Keith Howard, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London "I breathe Korean air, I drink Korean water, therefore my music is Korean." So remarked the South Korean composer, Byungdong Paik (b.1936). Since the late 1970s, there has been much debate within Korea about what constitutes Korean music. At one level, this by needs defines compositions for Western instruments by Korean composers as Korean, as well as new works for traditional Korean instruments. From a nationalistic perspective, and mixing in politics, attempts are made to define all musics performed in Korea as Korean. My paper considers the debate, looking at the emergence of new aesthetic understandings that have in the last two decades allowed scholars and musicians to claim a local identity in the music they study and perform. Data I collected in two questionnaire surveys carried out at performance venues and through an arts magazine suggests a different picture: respondents clearly separated Korean music from Western music. The former was considered an emotional experience, felt within the soul by listeners, full of collective national history, and perfectly suited to the Korean psyche. The latter was understood in terms of structures, something that needed to be learned and studied to be enjoyed. What conclusions can we draw? 11:20 2D2 Imagining music: The Construction of Meaning and Emotion in the Music of Korea and the Korean Diasporas of the Former Soviet Union and China Hae-Kyung Um, International Institute for Asian Studies, Leiden This paper examines the ways in which meaning and emotion in Korean music are variously constructed, mediated and reinterpreted in Korea and the Korean diasporas of the former Soviet Union and China. This process of `imagining music' will be described and analysed comparatively using three different forms of Korean music, namely, the traditional musical drama p'ansori; the group of folksongs known as `Arirang,' and the contemporary percussion ensemble samul nori. Meaning and emotion in a particular piece of Korean music are socially mediated and culturally and historically constructed by different individuals and groups through the process of imagining music. Meaning and emotion for the Korean diasporas add yet another dimension. For these displaced peoples Korean music establishes cultural links with both their homeland and other Korean communities. However, the migrant experience and cultural and political life in their respective host countries also gives shape to their perceptions of meaning and emotion in the musics from home. Additionally and importantly, these Korean migrant communities have also created their own musical forms, aesthetics and associated personal and public discourse all of which feed into the process of imagining music that is Soviet Korean or Chinese Korean. All these complexities combine to create a unique experience of meaning and emotion in the musical imagination of each individual who, none the less, is connected to those with whom they share common elements of musical heritage and experience. 11:50 2D3 Tension and Release as Physical and Auditory Signs of Affect in Korean Music Byong Won Lee, University of Hawaii at Manoa A common aesthetic feature of much musical performance is the continuous alternation of tension and release as building elements of the music. This alternation may be present not only in the sonic design of the music, but also in the conditions by which the sound is produced, such as performance postures and some characteristic organological structures. This paper examines three specific modes of tension and release aesthetics in Korean traditional music. First, in real-time performance, certain melodic cells and tones are often made more tense by expanding the length through the insertion of a break in the middle of the cell or a momentary pause in the middle of the sustained tone. Second, the simultaneous performance of changdan (metered rhythm) and mujangdan (non-metered rhythm) in p'ansori (musical story-telling accompanied by a barrel drum) and sanjo (extended solo instrumental music accompanied an hourglass-shaped drum) performances always creates a high degree of tension which requires an equally high degree of release. Third, the kinaesthetetic aspects of some of the idiosyncratic performance postures are often understood as visible signs of the tension-release pattern. Performance on the taegum (transverse flute) and chunggu (hourglass-shaped drum) illustrates this aspect vividly. An examination of such patterns can shed light on processes that generate emotion and meaning in music, inasmuch as tension and release are in themselves emotional states as well as auditory and kinaesthetic ones, and as such are affected by the manifold elements and circumstances that surround the production of musical sound. 12:10 2D4 Emotion and Meaning in the Early Chosôn Period: The Debate over Yôak Jocelyn Clark, Harvard University The gentlemen of the early Chosôn, interpreting Zhu Xi's observation that, "If one is mindful one's desires will be few and principles will be clear. If one reduces one's desires and then reduces them yet further until a condition in which they are totally absent is approached, then in quiet [one's mind and heart] will be empty [of self-centered impulses] and in activity [one's conduct] will be correct. . .," resorted to removing their desires externally by removing women from the public sphere of life in order to "make illustrious virtue manifest." The practice of using female entertainers in the court for banquets, the system of yôak, a potent combination of wee-hours, alcohol, music, dance, and female beauty (combined later with the beauty of adolescent boys), especially agitated the seven emotions and created impurities in the gentlemens' psychophysical constitution which in turn was, or had potential to be, harmful to the state. The debate over the use of yoak waged for centuries. It is this system, the system which engendered it, and the emotional debate that surrounded it during the early Choson period that I will discuss. 12:20 2D5 Meaning and Emotion in North Korean "National Music" Dae-Cheol Sheen, Kangnung National University Music based on traditional sources is known in North Korea as `national music' (minjok umak). Though this term is also used occasionally in South Korea, the meaning of tradition, music, and `national music' in particular are quite different between the two Koreas. The works which are recognized as masterpieces of `national music' in the North are exclusively those which support a socialistic revolutionary agenda. Ever since Kim Il-Sung emerged as the all-powerful leader of North Korea in 1945, `national music' in the North could be created only on the basis of his juche (`self-reliance') ideology, a version of socialist realism. This doctrine is codified in the two most authoritative North Korean books on music, Kim Il-Sung's own Juche Ideology on Culture and Art and his son and successor Kim Jong-Il's Essay on Music. It is also reproduced in numerous other books published in North Korea, which never deviate from the prescriptions of the two Kims. From these published sources, it appears that the authors lay great stress on the importance of emotion in `national music,' but that there is also an apparent contradiction in the emotional qualities that are desired. Revolutionary opera, in particular, requires a stirring, heroic emotional tone, yet the melodies are expected to be gentle and melancholy--qualities typically associate with traditional Korean music. It is hoped that a better understanding of these processes in North Korean music can contribute to a cultural dialogue between the two Koreas in the interest of their ultimate unification. Session 2E Narratives of Cultural Continuity: Four Moments in Yiddish Music Chair: Mark Slobin, Wesleyan University For modern Jews, deciding what story to tell about themselves through music has been and continues to be a complex process, as work by Bohlman, Shelemay, Seroussi, Summit, and Slobin has shown. The panel presents four moments of attempted continuity and definition within eastern European Jewish music, spanning more than a century: 1) a foundational moment-- Abraham Goldfadn's creation of Yiddish musical theater as part of an attempt at a national narrative, in the 1870s-1880s (Seth Wolitz, University of texas); 2) a transitional period focusing on the struggle for continuity in diaspora faced by three emigre Polish klezmer musicians in the 1930s-1950s (Hankus Netsky, New England Conservatory); 3) the attempt by 1990s musicians to recreate technically the sound of the klezmer past (Mark Slobin, Wesleyan University); 4) the intertwining of "ethnic" and "women's" narratives in the case of current female klezmer musicians and bands (Franya Berkman, Wesleyan University). 11:00 2E1 Music and Nationalism in Three Major Melodramas of A. Goldfadn Seth L. Wolitz, The University of Texas at Austin This paper will interpret the role and functions of three melodramas, Dr. Almosado, Shulamis and Bar Kokhba by Abraham Goldfadn, father of Yiddish musical theater. He closely constructed each work as reflection of the tensions and programs before and following the assassination of Alexander II in 1881. Music plays a central role in determining the experience of the melodrama and a source of its cathartic nature. The use of individual songs and choral pieces as well as musical interludes provide the work with lyric shape which reinforces the linear narrative and plotting. Music furthers the hidden agenda of shaping a modern peoplehood by giving lyric identity both on the level of musical syntax and through the verbal language chosen to be sung. Goldfadn's intention to build a Jewish consciousness through theater explains his careful attention to the placement of song which serves as crescendo moments of the task. The songs permit anachronisms to creep in for these allusions direct the receptor to the hidden intentions. Music therefore functions dynamically by underscoring on the verbal level the aesopian message and the musical language itself reinforces the national identity. Thus the musical theater of Goldfadn permitted the Jews to coalesce as a modern people using for the first time esthetic means to create and legitimate a national identity both to itself and to the Other. 11:30 2E2 Narratives of Survival: Three Twentieth Century Jewish Musicians from Poland Hankus Netsky, New England Conservatory This paper will compare and contrast the careers and accomplishments of three klezmorim (professional eastern European Jewish folk instrumentalists) born in Poland around 1920. Violinist Carl Frydman left Chmielnick for Boston in 1935, never quite adjusting to or finding acceptance in his new home. Krakow-born accordionist Leo Rosner had a successful career in Melbourne Australia, after surviving World War II as a member of Oscar Schindler's house band. Percussionist Ben Bazyler was exiled from Warsaw to Siberia, later moving to Birobidzhan and finally Los Angeles, where the emotional traumas of his life eventually caught up with him. All three of these musicians survived World War II, continuing to play their Jewish repertoire well into the latter part of this century. After the destruction of Poland's Jewish community, each of them found their own way to forge a career in a new homeland, bringing their music with them as a kind of living monument to the world they left behind. Their stories demonstrate the profound role that music can play in the lives of individuals and communities displaced from their native lands. While klezmer music (eastern-European Jewish celebratory music) has recently gained unprecedented popularity in its own right, I believe it takes on deeper layers of meaning when one considers the story of its demise and eventual resurgence, and the varied motives, experiences, and survival strategies of those who sustained it (and been sustained by it) through difficult times. 12:00 2E3 More than Mere Ornament: The Case of the Klezmer Krekhts Mark Slobin, Wesleyan University Krekhts is a Yiddish word denoting a groan or sigh. Aesthetically, krekhts is one of a number of terms that signify types of expressive turns of phrase in a sung or played passage. The krekhts is felt to be a core component of a "Jewish" sound within the east European context and its extensions to the "Yiddish diaspora" in the United States and elsewhere. The krekhts of early 78 rpm klezmer violin recordings (ca. 1914-32) is easily recognizable, but its actual manner of production is unknown. We have no documentation about the technique of the recording artists (or even biographies, in most cases) and few older violinists survived into the period of revitalization that began in the mid-1970s. Thus, for the many aspiring klezmer artists of today, the krekhts is both indispensable and technically indecipherable. This is a crucial problem, since "ornamentation," the term for turns of phrase like the krekhts, is crucial to the self-identity and external evaluation of contemporary klezmers. This particular musical parameter is widely understood as providing narrative continuity with the klezmer past across the great gap of the 1940s-1970s, which saw European annihilation and American neglect of the genre. In klezmer teaching contexts today, "ornamentation" takes up much of the demonstration and discussion time. The paper will interrogate the term "ornament," briefly referencing its position in other "heritage" musics, move to interviews with klezmer violinists, and use as illustration sonograms detailing the phenomenology of the older and current krekhts. 12:30 2E4 Songs of Our Fathers?: Women and the Klezmer Experience Franya Berkman, Wesleyan University Since the klezmer revival of the late 1970s, numerous female klezmer players have earned international recognition. The acceptability of the female and, more particularly, the lesbian klezmer musician in the public sphere is a product of current modes of expression and representation made possible by Yiddish scholars, folklorists, musicians, queer activists, feminists and promoters. This contemporary cultural manifestation merges several models of marginality or "otherness": Jewish identity, female identity and lesbian identity. The result is a viable, and potentially, lucrative, musical concept finding expression in the women's music scene, women's cultural and intellectual events as well as the politics of ethnicity and diversity that characterize America's present cultural landscape. In the following paper, I discuss women and the klezmer experience from two perspectives. On the one hand, I discuss what Judith Butler and other Foucauldian theorists have called the production of the subject -- the way in which "the domains of political and linguistic representation set out in advance create the criterion by which subjects themselves are formed." On the other, I discuss the multi-layered and varied personal meanings that klezmer music has had for women musicians and women audiences. Based on interviews and my own role as a participant, I examine the ways in which klezmer music has become intertwined with feminist and lesbian narratives. Nonference: 2F Bridging Musical Worlds: Assessing Music Workshops Abroad 11:00-1:00 Thursday, November 18 Steven Cornelius, Bowling Green State University For the past six years, the College of Musical Arts at Bowling Green State University has sponsored summer music and dance workshops in Ghana and Bali. To date, approximately 90 students have participated. While a large percentage of those enrolled have been graduate and undergraduate students in music, the workshops have been designed to accommodate generalists; any university student is welcome to enroll. For our music graduate students, the trip is framed as a quick, intense, easily controlled, but admittedly artificial introduction to life and work in the field. While a daily class program is made available, there are ample opportunities for these students to pursue additional or alternative interests. For the generalists, the trips function mostly as an experiential class in music-making and culture. Students learn to play instruments and dance, but for most, upon their return home such technical knowledge is quickly forgotten. More importantly, while abroad, students become witnesses to a style of living far different from their own. Ultimately, we hope these experiences will challenge the students to be more creative -- to think out of the box, if you will -- in their future lives. Do our programs actually accomplish the goals outlined above? Generally they have, but often in ways we would not have predicted in advance. Student evaluations and follow-up assessments suggest that both initial and later distilled experiences lie outside the frame we assumed had been initially laid out. The goal of this nonference is to jointly explore program successes and shortcomings in order to encourage dialogue that might lead to better approaches. Nonference: 3A Changing Copyright Laws and Their Implications for Ethnomusicology 2:30-4:30 Thursday, November 18 Chair: Anthony McCann, Irish World Music Centre Anthony McCann; David Sanjek; Laurel Sercombe; Anthony Seeger What are the implications of recent changes in copyright laws, and their applications, for the field of ethnomusicology? This question will be discussed in terms of the legal and ethical dimensions of fieldwork, archiving, and publication. This will include discussion of attribution, ownership, responsibility, trust, and appropriation, exploring questions raised by examples such as the destruction of Toelken's `Yellowman Tapes'. The discussion will also explore the implications of new copyright legislation for theoretical developments in ethnomusicology. The study of intellectual property rights can provide insights into the dynamics of innovation, creativity and cultural production. The discussion will also throw light on the relationship between music and technology in both popular music and traditional forms. A clear understanding of the theoretical implications of intellectual property, and copyright in particular, can shed crucial light on the cultural history of the music industry. Session 3B Issues in African Music 2:30-4:30 Thursday, November 18 Chair: Christopher Waterman, University of California, Los Angeles 2:30 3B1 Tradition and Change in the Song Style of a South African Denomination Sara Stone Miller, Kent State University The religious denomination known as The Church of God and Saints of Christ encompasses churches in North America, the Caribbean, Great Britain and Africa. Although separated by thousands of miles, the various segments of this relatively small African-American denomination evidence a remarkable similarity in traditions, doctrine, and practice. Among the traditions, a capella singing in four-part harmony of songs created within the denomination and learned by rote is a focal point of every service, as is marching in complex formations while singing. The Church of God and Saints of Christ was founded in the United States in 1896 by William Saunders Crowdy. Missionaries were sent to the Caribbean and South Africa in the early years of the twentieth century. These missionaries transmitted not only the religious doctrine and practices of the Church, but the importance of multi-part choral singing and marching as integral aspects of worship services. While members in the Caribbean evidence a style of singing and marching virtually identical to that of the denomination in the United States, in South Africa the situation is much more complex. Two major segments of the denomination exist there, both now loosely united with each other after many years of separation. While communication with the church in the United States was re-established for one group in the 1930s, for the other it only occurred within the last three years. In recent years three official visits have been made to South Africa by delegations including choir members from the denomination in the United States. Many songs sung by both segments of the denomination in South Africa are closer in style to that of other South African choirs than to that of the denomination in the United States. The segment which has been in contact longer with the church in the United States has, however, already adopted a number of songs from them with their accompanying style. This paper will compare the song and marching styles of the two South African segments, their relationship with the song and marching style of the denomination in the United States, and the process of change as both South African segments increasingly interact with each other and with the denomination in the United States. 3:00 3B2 Situated Musical Competence: Insights from the Composition of Three Songs in Northwestern Congo Brian Schrag, University of California, Los Angeles Davidson and Torff, in their "Situated Cognition in Music (Worlds of Music, 1992), propose a model of musical practice which incorporates both broad cultural forces and individual competences. In this paper, I investigate song composition among the Mono of northwestern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) through the lens of situated cognition. First, I tell the story of the composition of three songs that I commissioned while living in Bili, DRC, in 1993; I illustrate this section with recorded renditions of the songs. Second, I discuss how Davidson and Torff's model reveals the nature and scope of the social, musical, and linguistic competences required to compose Mono music. Third, and to conclude, I suggest ways in which ethnomusicologists could profitably apply this model to their own forays into the acquisition of musics foreign to them. 3:30 3B3 "Don't Live Primitive Lives Anymore:" Nationalist Discourse and Modernity Among Matengo Dancers Stephen Hill, University of Illinois More than any other decade in this century, the 1950s brought monumental change to the Wamatengo in Southwestern Tanzania. In this decade they adopted coffee farming bringing them into the burgeoning cash economy, they lost sight of an exclusively clan or ethnic identity while beginning to envision themselves as independent Tanganyikans, and they abandoned a significant old dance in favor of two new dances. One element links and invigorates these three shifts a nascent notion of and education in modernity. While a new identity as independent Tanganyikans depended on forces outside the Matengo homeland, the potential for coffee farming existed there since 1927, and the geographically and culturally close Wanyasa danced the new dances beginning in the early 1930s. Thus, many of the raw materials for a modernist world view preceded the 1950s. In this paper I will explore the historical conjunctures which made the 1950s an opportune time for these significant shifts in Matengo identity and how the Wamatengo learned modernity. Further, I will argue that the liberationist/modernist discourse cultivated by Julius Nyerere and his TANU party was the essential factor catalyzing the major changes described above. Because the Wamatengo do not articulate their understanding of issues such as economics and broad shifts in personal identity, the important realm of dance provides a clear window into how the Wamatengo viewed the turmoil of the 1950s and the resultant changes. 4:00 3B4 Tradition, Process, and Emergence: Ethnographically Tracing the History of a Dance Form in Malawi Lisa Gilman, Indiana University Chilimika is a mostly female competitive dance form performed to celebrate the new year in Nkhata Bay District in Malawi. The development of Chilimika in its current manifestation is recent and recordable. While conducting fieldwork in Nkhata Bay in 1998-99, I identified the first Chilimika dance team or "boma" as the Peacemakers in Durban Village in the Chinteche area. The "boma" formed in 1961 when the Village Headman of Durban sat with people in his village and declared that because there was too much fighting during their non-formalized New Year's dancing, he had conceived a new dance form that had many elements of another Nkhata Bay District dance, Malipenga. As other villages followed suit, Chilimika became the popular New Years entertainment in the Chinteche area. Much later, the "tradition" caught on in villages near the town of Nkhata Bay and many new dance teams were started in 1988. In 1998, groups were formed for the first time in villages in northern parts of the district. Because the origin of Chilimika in its current form is traceable, this dance tradition provides an opportunity for examining cultural process: the emergence and ongoing transformations of a tradition. In this paper, I present the history of this dance form, with special attention to the complex relationship between changes in the tradition and various aspects of its social, political, and economic contexts. Session 3C Gender and Music 2:30-4:00 November 18 Chair: Margaret Sarkissian, Smith College 2:30 3C1 Authenticating the Female Gidayu: Gender, Westernization, and Governmental Policy in Japanese Performing Arts Kiwamu Nakamura, Washington University In recent musical scholarship on Japan, female gidayű have become a topic of interest. I contextualize my own work with female gidayű within recent historical accounts provided by Coaldrake and Mizuno, and address the broader cultural and ideological framework in which evaluation of these musicians has taken place. My contention is that westernization in Japan has affected the way female gidayű now exist. Women who play the gidayű (a Japanese musical narration) are acknowledged with the marked category "joryű-gidayű (female gidayu performers) as opposed to the unmarked (male) "gidayű." Despite their two-hundred-year history, they are still not allowed to play gidayű in the highly valorized traditional puppet theatre, bunraku. Apparently accepting the explanation that `the theatre is for men," they neither protest the privilege of male gidayű nor develop their own style dissociated from the male counterpart. It would be incorrect to assume, however, that they do not question gender inequality. My research suggests rather that female gidayű are quite savvy about their denigrated status and accept this status in exchange for gaining official authentication. The concept of authenticity is paramount in the Japanese traditional arts. To be acknowledged as bona fide performers, female gidayű must be authenticated by both male authorities and the Japanese government. Curiously enough, the authentication process embeds both indigenous and western cultural values. While avoiding limitless westernization imposes traditional gender ideology on female gidayű, a western notion of high art requires the elevation of female gidayű from popular entertainment to sophisticated art. 3:00 3C2 Dana Goes International: The Crossing of Musical, National and Sexual Borders Yossi Maurey, University of Chicago Nationality and gender are two of the crucial constituents in the construction of identity. Yet, much contemporary post-modern cultural production is dedicated to denaturalizing both heteronormative gender and Hegelian, post-Enlightenment nationalism. Music is one of several media in which cultural artifacts can come to signify the Nation. The paper focuses on the music of Dana International, an Israeli transsexual singer who won the 1998 Eurovision Song Contest. The Eurovision, which offers a unique opportunity for an immediate identification of singer and nation, serves as my point of departure to a more extensive examination of the varied political and sexual subversions of Dana's interventions in nationalist discourse. Through quotation of music and/or lyrics, and the alteration and departure from the original, Dana transforms and renews several songs in a way unique to her: she forces the audience to rethink what is natural and what is historically constructed, and constantly blurs distinctions between the sexes, between past and present, between the National and the International. Her songs often mock and parody the masculanist, nationalist myths of mainstream Israeli culture, exposing the ideology of its artifacts. Dana disputes and resists Israel's national fixation with its borders; in particular, Dana engages provocatively with the tensions between Israel's geographical location in the Arab and Muslim Middle-East, and its self-perception as a European nation. 3:30 3C3 Unique Representations of Femininity in Punk and Pop Alyssa Lightbourn, University of California, Los Angeles The purpose of this paper is to explore female alternative-rock musicians' reappropriation of traditional notions of gender as they are represented by both American punk- and pop- music. This discussion is based upon a long-standing association between both rock and pop music and the traditional Caucasian-American gender binary. Numerous scholars have reported that, through various everyday activities, performers, audiences, and members of the popular music industry produce rock as a traditionally masculine domain and pop as a traditionally feminine domain. According to Susan McClary, people read these musical signs as belonging to historically- and culturally-produced symbolic precedents which have been shaped by dominant societal practices and ideologies. In response to the gendered agendas of the music industry's participants, Sara Cohen, Keith Negus, Norma Coates, and other scholars have studied the musical works and activities of musicians who promote non-traditional notions of gender. Through their projects, they initiate a conceptualization of gender which is divorced from traditional notions of masculinity and femininity. In my opinion, these studies play an important part in restraining the perpetuation of traditional dichotomous notions of gender. However, in studying and reporting non-traditional "performative" constructions of gender, one should acknowledge the underlying elements of conventional representations of gender. In this paper, I will argue that this acknowledgement is important since new constructions of gender may be based upon "fusions" of selected elements from historical, cultural gender ideologies. By focusing on the musical content and images of female alternative-rock musicians, this paper will illustrate how they have reappropriated both punk- and pop-music's traditional representations of gender. Through "fusing" reappropriated elements of the traditional gender binary as it is represented through music and imagery, they have contributed alternate notions of femininity and alternate notions of punk- and pop-music. 4:00 3C4 "If You Want to Win, You've Got to Play it Like a Man:" Women Fiddlers' Experiences in Fiddle Contests Sherry A. Johnson, York University When April Verch won the 1998 Canadian Open Fiddle Championship in Shelburne, Ontario, she was only the second woman to have done so. Surprisingly, this distinction was not mentioned in the award presentation, broadcast live by the Canadian Broadcast Corporation. For women fiddlers, however, April's win was significant, evoking a sense of pride and solidarity as they claimed the achievement for all Canadian women fiddlers. There are obviously fewer women than men fiddling in contests, but why, and to what effect? How do women fiddlers' experiences differ from men's experiences? What gender structure is created/reflected in contests, and is this structure consistent in less formal and non-competitive social contexts for fiddle performance? Why is the media silent on issues of gender? These questions, prompted by April's win at Shelburne, have guided my current research. The main themes that emerged from my interviews with women fiddlers, who have participated at some time in the Ontario fiddle and step dance contest circuit, are: a) predominant male/female roles at contests; b) separation of men's and women's performance spheres; and c) discourses and demonstrations of masculine/feminine fiddle style. My 17 years of experience in the circuit, as a step dancer, step dance judge, and later as a fiddler, as well as information brochures, participant registration statistics, and audio recordings from several years of various contests, constitute the supporting data sources for this study. This paper is a preliminary step in the exploration of gender issues in fiddle contests, by focusing on women fiddlers' experiences. Session 3D Music in Religious Occasions 2:30-4:30 Thursday, November 18 Chair: , Regula Qureshi, University of Alberta 2:30 3D1 From Tagulaylay to Bahay Kubo to Titanic: Contemporary Philippine Pasyon M. Arlene Chongson, The University of Texas at Austin In March 1998, the same month the movie Titanic became the biggest global box office success and won major Oscar awards, on Philippine television news some Filipinos were shown adapting the film's theme song in the payson. The Payson, also known as the Pabasa, is an annual ritual celebrated during the Catholic Church's Holy Week. With origins emanating from the eighteenth century, the text of the payson is mainly based on the passions of Jesus Christ, though it is combined as well with other non-biblical printed sources. Traditional chants used with the text have influences from epic singing. This paper will explore the factors that validate the instantaneous adaptation of fold and popular tunes, as well as various song genres, that are fitted into a religious text. Applying Catherine Bell's theory on ritual practice, it will examine the characteristics that identify the performance of the payson as ritual. It will investigate the inner workings of folk Catholicism within the payson. It will be asserted that the reason for the continued use of the payson is found in the multi-faceted nature of the payson that makes it simultaneously a sacred and secular event, as well as both a personal and communal expression. Positioning the payson within the discourse of Filipino social scientists, notably Raul Pertierra and Arnold Molina Azurin, it will be argued that the payson manifests a reading of Philippine cultural history in its text and music, expresses the struggle of its search for national identity, and voices the Filipino's core sense of being. 3:00 3D2 Indigenous Representations: Araucanian Contributions to Sacred Processions in Colonial Chile Beth K. Aracena, University of Chicago This paper examines the performative spaces of processions to reveal instances of native enunciations aimed at subverting political and musical authority in colonial Chile. Heightening important liturgical events such as Holy Week, Corpus Christi, Marian feasts, and saints days, religious processions provided significant venues for the fashioning of cultural identifications throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Ethnographic writings from the era report that confraternities composed of Araucanian, African, Spanish, and Creole populations collaborated in these celebrations, with song, dance, theatrical works, and costume integral to the festivities. Such descriptions construe music-making in sacred arenas as political sites for voicing contested values and cultural difference. I draw upon postcolonial studies to consider processes of hybridization in which expressions of Araucanian mis-appropriations competed with dominant religious and musical discourses. Indigenous Chileans participating in the processions did not merely imitate missionary teachings and conform to Catholicism; rather, they fused elements from Christian rituals with their own histories of both cultures. By embracing postcolonial theory to examine knowledges outside dominant repertories, my paper contributes to an historical traditional canon in order to consider musics and musical contexts previously neglected by scholarship. This attention to native utterances and performative presencing in processions opens new areas of investigation for theatrical repertories and local villancico composition in the New World, both topics of Latin American music history not yet fully explored. 3:30 3D3 "We Know Your God--He is Our God Also:" Degrees of African Identity in the Church Music of Ghana Paul W. Humphreys, Loyola Marymount University In July 1998, some thirty-five composers and choirmasters from Southern Ghana convened at the University of Ghana, Legon for a two week institute devoted to the study and practice of church music. Hosted by the International Center for African Music and Dance--ICAMD is a research unit within the university--this inaugural event featured lectures on conducting, transcription, repertoire, and the role of the composer in creating new works for the church. In one of several talks presented to participants of the institute, J.H.K Nketia (Director of ICAMD) called attention to the "Christo-centric" character of music composed for and performed in the churches of Africa. This characterization most obviously addresses texts that invoke teaching metaphors which may be inapplicable in an African setting (e.g. spiritual leader as "shepherd"), of non-African provenance, or both. Nketia is at least as concerned, however, with the unquestioning appropriation of European musical norms by composers of church music in Africa. Citing the pionering example of Ephraim Amu, he has gone on to suggest that a truly African corpus of music for the African church both can and should emerge. My conversations with participants both during and after the institute suggest that Nketia's words have not fallen on deaf ears. His advocacy in this regard is of long standing, and many composers have already forged individual styles that combine the texture and harmonic syntax of European music in distinctively African ways. This paper examines the work of four such composers with reference to specific anthems (with texts in Ga, Ewe, Twi, and English), performance practice, and the evolving social contexts of church music in southern Ghana. Session 3E Connecting Events 2:30-4:30 Thursday, November 18 Chair: Carol Babiracki, Syracuse University Discussant: Beverley Diamond, York University Ethnomusicologists have frequently challenged notions of musical performances as discrete and rigidly bounded events. However, the theoretical implications of looking at the social practices that connect one musical performance to another have often been ad hoc. This panel will look at several means of "connecting" events: (1) to the experiential frameworks of individual listeners and participants, including the multiple interpretive strategies of a variety of ethnomusicologists; (2) to other events in which performers may reconfigure their roles or their relationships to place and to each other; (3) to political and social movements and ideologies within which performances take place. Our goal is not simply to elaborate the contextual, however, but rather to explain how these "connecting" practices shape the codes of musical performance and audience members, as well as scholarly responses to musical performance. 2:30 3E1 Re/Placing Events Beverley Diamond, York University Ethnographies of performance often acknowledge, in passim, that musical performances are made meaningful by perceived or actual relationships to other musical performances. This paper suggests, however, that a more systematic focus on discourses that interrelate performances offers a fresh perspective, replacing events as space/time bounded with a concept of events as networks of performers, listeners, places, and institutions. In a case study based in the Yukon, performances both at home and on tour, by a group of musicians who constitute themselves on one hand as a Cajun-influenced pop band, and on other occasions, as a Native American ensemble, are explored. The paper draws upon interviews, conducted between 1993 and 1999, as well as performance ethnography in Whitehorse and Toronto. I will explore how individual musicians contrast performances to instruct gender and class-inflected discourses of Yukon identity, aboriginality, and French Canadian (but not Quebecois) identity. I suggest that an exploration of the interlinking of performances may constitute an important middle ground between localized ethnography and studies focusing on the global interlocking of modern institutions. 3:00 3E2 Departing from an Event Pirkko Moisala, Abo Akademi University The paper aims at decentering the event by exploring the multiple interpretations of a single occasion. It examines the ways our scholarly interpretations of an event are grounded in our personal backgrounds and interests. It is proposed that an event is relational to the present and past of the observer/participant as much as it is experienced as a concrete event. The paper is based on "field work" done by ten members of the "Music and Gender" Study Group of the ICTM in a Finnish dance restaurant, in January 1999. The observers came from different ethnic, national, cultural backgrounds and from different gender and age groups. The observations made on the Finnish gender system performed in the dance restaurant reflected the past experiences and theoretical viewpoints of the observers while they also were situational. Looked through such a multicultural lens, "an event" gets multiple faces and becomes connected to a variety of social and experiential worlds. 3:30 3E4 Dancing Between the Lines Carol Babiracki, Syracuse University This paper is an inquiry into the interpretation of explicitly gendered, segregated group dance/song practices of Nagpuri speakers of southern Bihar, India. Subjective statements from participants (recorded in 1993 and 1999), suggest that these practices (events, dance patterns, drum patterns, melody types), called, literally, "men's" and "women's" jhumar, constitute and interpret each other through a web of social practices, including embodied performance experiences. Literally dancing between these two types of jhumar are nacnis, professional female dancer/singers who are transformed from women's jhumar participants to men's jhumar entertainers when they enter the profession. The nacnis also link the two danced jhumar events to a third, the presentation of men's and women's jhumar songs on stage, without dance, by male soloists and a handful of female nacnis and "modern singers." Stage performance, and the participation of nacnis in it, while reinforcing and making visible the connections between male and female genres also eliminates their separate, essential, embodied identities. This preliminary inquiry suggests that the gendered interpretations of these various performances of jhumar are shaped by the different natures of participants' embodied and disembodied experiences, experiences that move between the dance lines as much as within them. 7:00-8:30 Video Screening and Discussion: Musical Instruments of Kacch and its Neighbors Amy Catlin and Nazir Jairazbhoy, University of California, Los Angeles This one-hour narrated video by Nazir Jairazbhoy and Amy Catlin posits a cultural continuum surrounding the semi-island of Kacch in western Gujarat, India by exploring the construction and use of musical instruments. Beginning with globular flutes of the Indus Valley Civilization still played in Kacch today, the researchers present performers of various traditions found in this colorful but little known district, along with cognate forms in neighboring districts in Pakistan and India. Physical and cultural characteristics are explained for a variety of instruments: double fipple and edge-blown flutes (some with vocal drones), Jew's harps (with simultaneous vocal melody), snakecharmer's double clarinets, and various quadruple-reed shawms. Percussion instruments include footed drums and coconut rattles brought by African immigrants, the Sidis, some four centuries ago. String instruments which have become extinct in Kacch but remain in the neighboring areas are introduced along with the few remaining string instruments. During the discussion, recent footage will be screened of Sidi African-Indian musicians playing the African-derived musical bow, malunga, with tuning noose and resonating gourd, introducing theories of its origin in East Africa. Friday, November 19 Session 4A Ethnomusicology and History I: Ethnography and Historical Method 8:30-10:30 Friday, November 19 Chair: William Noll, Kyiv Music Academy 8:30 4A1 Shadows from the Past: Notes on an Epistemological Perspective for Historical Ethnomusicology Eriko Kobayashi, The University of Texas at Austin While ethnography and history used to be conceptualized dichotomously--as synchronic and diachronic approaches--ethnomusicologists have long intertwined history in their ethnographic writings. In this paper, among various interfaces of music ethnography and history, I focus on the commonality of the two as modes of writing--particularly their epistemological underpinnings. As modes of narrativizing experience or "what happened," both ethnography and history reduce (or abstract) "reality" in accordance with certain choices of information and deployments of narrative strategies, in order to enable understanding. Inspired by the volume Shadows in the Field edited by Barz and Cooley (1997), I apply a few issues raised in the volume to the writing of music history. A writing of history, like ethnography, is always already an interpretation. Similarly, relationships between history writing and "what happened" are inherently discrepant but dialectical. Drawing on my case study on the modern historiography of Hindustani classical music, I ask how processes of abstraction work. What are the choices of information based on? What are the narrative strategies? What might disjunctive relationships between "reality" and history mean? The modern historiography of Hindustani music entails the conception of Hindustani music which formulated in tension with co-existing conceptions such as Hindu music, Indian music, North Indian music, or classical music. I aim to illustrate how the tensions among these co-existing conceptions affect the writing of history. 9:00 4A2 Excursions in the Historical Past, or a Report on Ethnomusicological Fieldwork in Mozart's Vienna Jonathan Stock, University of Sheffield Descriptions of ethnomusicology commonly, if not universally, posit the researcher's personal undertaking of sustained fieldwork as central to the very discipline of ethnomusicology. Fieldwork gives us due experience, we hope, and, rhetorically, it invests us with the authority of "someone who was there." Its centrality in our theoretical literature notwithstanding, the whole exercise and notion of fieldwork is nonetheless under challenge in day-to-day practice from a number of perspectives, both ideological and logistical. For instance, a glance at recent (and some not-so-recent) publications suggests that we are increasingly conscious of the ways in which "the field" impinges on the academy. Indeed, the field can be the academy, just as it can be found at home, or summoned up on our desktop computers. Or, from another perspective, the field in investigations of certain popular and urban musical traditions can be so unbounded as to be difficult to come to grips with through traditional, participatory-cum-observational research methods. Through the device of a fictional fieldwork report, this paper offers a reconsideration of the field of historical ethnomusicology, by which I refer to work in which historical sources are examined in order to produce reflections on past, and sometimes also present, musical cultures. The scope for ethnomusicologists to engage in this kind of writing is investigated, and the contribution it can offer to those studying present-day music making is assessed. 9:30 4A3 Historical Ethnography: How do We Research and Represent Musical Change in an Oral Tradition? Gregory D. Booth, University of Auckland The arrival, indigenization, and growth of brass bands in India are phenomena located at the complex intersection of history, music culture, and social structure. Caste dynamics, colonialization, urbanization, popular culture, and mass media all play a role in the development of this tradition, which despite its functional importance, continues to occupy a marginal place in South Asian music culture. Because brass bands are not only foreign but also colonial in origin, they appear as an especially dense conglomerate of cultural symbolism. In addition, they are readily perceived as an explicit instance of musical or music-cultural change. The proposed paper outlines patterns and phases of socio-musical adaptation and change as exemplified by South Asian brass bands, presenting the results of extended ethnographic field research in South Asia. The matter of musical (or music cultural) change is viewed and questioned as both a subject for Ethnomusicological study and a cultural reality (or non-reality) in the lives of musicians and patrons. The paper further considers the challenges and effectiveness of ethnographic methodologies in the construction of historical narrative when the central characters of that narrative are members of a marginalized tradition possessed of a consistently devalued and almost exclusively oral history. 10:00 4A4 Intersecting Histories of Music and Scholars in Polish Mountain Villages Timothy J. Cooley, University of California, Santa Barbara This paper is an example of how historical research can lead to radically different interpretations on one's own ethnographic fieldwork. During my first fieldwork trip to the Tatra Mountain region of Poland in 1992, it became clear to me that I was operating in the long shadow of earlier fieldworkers in this region. When describing their own family music traditions to me, village musicians so often included critiques of earlier musical ethnographers who studied with their ancestors, that I came to realize that the history of ethnography in this region intersected with the history the music-culture itself. In this paper, I review the history of musical ethnography in this region and show that the interaction between local musicians and researchers from elsewhere shaped what came to be known as "traditional" music of the Tatra region. I suggest that the more controversial and progressive trends among local village musicians today are actually similar to music activities of 150 years ago that were rejected in the few decades before and after the turn of the century as outside scholars narrowed their notions of what constituted indigenous music of this region. Village musicians today actively debate verbally and musically the merits of outside scholars who write about their music. Session 4B Music and Ethnicity in the United States 8:30-10:30 Friday, November 19 Chair: Terrence Lui, Public Corporation for the Arts 8:30 4B1 Cold War Cultural Exchange: The United States and Poland Paula Savaglio, Newman University Long before President Johnson outlined his vision of building bridges of "trade, travel, and humanitarian assistance" between the United States and Easter Europe, Polish Americans had established a history of cultural exchange with Poles. Since the early 1900s, Polish communities in the United States had created musical institutions whose primary function was to espouse Polish culture in America. With the onset of the Cold War, Polish American ensembles, bolstered by the membership of new immigrants and displaced persons, renewed their efforts to bring Polish culture into the U.S. and to experience, themselves, Poland under Communist rule. Polish American dance groups sent choreographers and even entire ensembles to Warsaw to study the nationalistic art of folk dance. They also invited Polish dance troupes to perform in the United States. The exchange cannot be described as free: leaders of the American ensembles proceeded at times individually, often without official support. Those who were partially sponsored by Party-led organizations operated frequently under the watchful eyes of government in both countries, enduring FBI interrogations and accused of "un-American activities." My aim is to address the nature of cultural exchange between Polish and Polish American dance organizations, focusing on the years immediately prior to, including, and following Johnson's administration (1963-1969). To what degree did the State encourage or hinder musical exchange between the two countries? Research for this paper has included interviews, and study of foreign relations documents and archival materials. 9:00 4B2 A Musical Identity in the Process of Westernization: A Study of the Korean Students at the Peabody Conservatory Sunghye Joo, University of Maryland, College Park In the late 1940s, two Korean students came to study piano at the Julliard School in New York on scholarships awarded by the American military government in Korea. They were the first Koreans to study music in the U.S. Fifty years later, Korean students are a major presence in the American music academy though Koreans in general are a tiny minority in American society. Until now, however, they have been unnoticed by the major works on American music schools including those by Henry Kingsbury and Bruno Nettl. At the Peabody Conservatory of the Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, Korean students number more than 20% of the total student body, the highest percentage of any foreign student group. Their pursuit of conservatory education at the highest level is indicative of the emphasis on Western music in contemporary Korean society, which has modernized under the influence of the vestiges of colonialism. At the same time, the students' motivation, general behavior patterns, and, especially, their disciplined approach to the studies sets them apart from their American peers. Based on the author's personal experience in Korea, and six months of research among Korean students at Peabody, this paper will examine the musical and cultural identity of Korean students in the U.S., focusing in particular on their attitudes toward music as an art and a profession. 9:30 4B3 Flexible Boundaries of Ethnicity and Musical Repertoire: Balkan Politics in the Seattle Junior Tamburitzans Jill Ann Johnson, University of Washington The children line up, dressed much as their Croatian ancestors would have sixty, or one hundred years ago. Dancing onto the performance area, they sing in the Croatian language as the audience watches and listens, enjoying the community created by this event. The Seattle Junior Tamburitzans are a children's group, which performs folk music and dance of Croatia. It is organized and driven by parents who are, mostly, first, second, and third generation immigrants of South Slavic origins. This paper explores the role of music in generating and maintaining an ethnic identity within the Seattle-area Slavic community, focusing on the Seattle Junior Tamburitzans. Change in the musical repertoire from pan-Yugoslav to mostly Croatian is a pivotal aspect of this paper. These changes have occurred due to shifts in the demographic composition of the community, and the political and social pressures caused by the war in former Yugoslavia. Glazer and Moynihan's ideas about how ethnic groups change over time to meet their social, and political needs, provide a theoretical focus for explaining why changes have occurred in the Seattle Junior Tamburitzans (Glazer and Moynihan 1978). Michael Fischer's concept of bifocality and the idea of the generation of new perspectives by creating a dialogue with the past (Fischer 1986), help show how the music and dance repertoire of the group is flexible. Changes in the repertoire of the Seattle Junior Tamburitzans reflect both social and political factors in the Seattle-area South Slavic community, and the ethnic and political changes in the Balkans. Session 4C What You Mean, "We"?: Method, Goal, and Identity in Academic `Ethno' Ensembles 8:30-10:30 Friday, November 19 Chair: Ted Solís, Arizona State University Respondent: David Locke, Tufts University The long, sometimes heated discourse as to the merits of performing ensembles in ethnomusicology programs appears generally resolved. However, ethnomusicologists' attempts at achieving "bi" and "multi-musicality" for themselves and their students have led many to re-examine the validity, methods, and goals of such activities. Ideas we raise in this panel include "artistic and educational angst;" "insider/outsider" status; connection to and helping create various "communities;" playing "ethnic dressup;" appropriateness of pedagogical abstractions from performance; the nature of the "total cultural experience" for students; role of the "native/insider" teacher; appropriateness of creativity and improvisation; appropriateness of self-expression more than "traditional" transmission; and inventing pedagogical roles. 8:30 4C1 "Where's `One'?": Musical Encounters of the Ensemble Kind Gage Averill, New York University Two influential and contrasting approaches to the use of musical ensembles in ethnomusicology programs were spun from the threads of Mantle Hood's UCLA program by two of Hood's students: the Robert "Brown model" at Wesleyan and the Robert "Garfias model" at Washington. I begin by comparing their ethical, pragmatic, and epistemological components. My own approach draws upon my experience at these two institutions (student at Washington, and faculty at Wesleyan) but departs significantly from the two models. I offer examples from my own experience with ensembles devoted to musical encounters meant to pry open students' cross-cultural learning skills: expose them to a variety of pedagogical methods; create productive confusion and dislocations; encourage students to begin asking the right questions through musical apprenticeship; provoke fascinating cultural interactions; and create conditions in which students master terminology, theory, technique, and ethos of a musical culture. The question that I hope to raise for panel and audience discussion is, put simply, are we practicing something akin to exotic musical transvestism (ethnodrag?) with our ensembles or are we creating musical engagements that prepare our students for a lifetime of musical ethnography, dialogue, and cultural exchange? 8:40 4C2 The Metallic Exotic: Balinese Gamelan in the Midwest David Harnish, Bowling Green State University For many of its students, BGSU is the first step into the larger world, and the BGSU Balinese gamelan comes to represent the exotic non-Western world. Some enter gamelan classes expecting parts to be provided in staff notation. However, I use a modified Javanese cipher notation for Balinese gamelan and write out the parts only for the slower moving metallophones and gongs. Faster parts are learned through repetition and reminders of the relationship of melodic phrases to the structure. The goal is for the music to "enter" students in a quasi-Balinese manner. Some students are frustrated by this learning process, of having to engage their ears to such extent; others take to it more quickly and absorb the material rapidly. This paper is an exploration of my experiences teaching Balinese gamelan in assorted academic contexts. 8:50 4C3 "When Can We Improvise?" The Place of Creativity in `ethno' Performance David, Hughes, SOAS, University of London Among numerous Asian and African traditions taught at SOAS, a matter exercising both teachers and students is creativity - whether variation-making, improvisation, composition or "merely" interpretation. Some traditions require significant creativity almost from the start (tabla, Persian classical singing, at least as taught by our native masters); others allow it only after considerable basic training (e.g. Javanese gamelan, Shona mbira, Thai classical music); others give very little space for it (e.g. shakuhachi, Balinese gamelan angklung). I will consider various views, approaches and factors pertaining to creativity. 9:00 4C4 Teaching BAka Performance: What's the `It' that Gets Taught? Michelle Kisliuk and Kelly Gross, University of Virginia What social and musical negotiations have taken place in an ensemble consisting of students at the University of Virginia who learn to perform BaAka music and dance ("pygmy music")? What is the "sound" of this community versus a "sound" that is "right" for a BaAka-style aesthetic? Can the two be fused given their radically different social contexts? Or (when it "works") are the social contexts so radically different after all? During field research (1986-1998 -- intermittent), Kisliuk had to invent her role as an apprentice, based on her experience of a model imported to the United States from Ghana (where it had been imported yet again from Europe?). Once Kisliuk took a teaching role, however, the "it" of the "tradition" again had to be invented, "polished up," in a sense, in order to make it "teachable" in a classroom context. At what point, then, does the community of performers begin to take off with the style and make "it" fully its own? What, then, is the "it" anyway? Kisliuk and Gross will reflect on this process and the issues it raises. 9:10 4C5 Creating a Community, Negotiating Among Communities: Performing Middle Eastern Music for a Diverse Middle Eastern and American Public Scott Marcus, University of California, Santa Barbara 1) Our UCSB Middle East Ensemble has a Board and a "Friends" support group. We call the support group "The Friends of Middle Eastern Music Association" (FOMEMA). The Board consists of 3 Arabs, 2 Armenians, 1 Greek, 3 Persians, and 1 Turk in addition to some European-Americans like myself. The Board members are supposed to keep us in active contact with the same Middle Eastern-American communities in the area. 2) Negotiating repertoire, structure of concerts, and guest artists often requires that we take into account socio-political-religious conflicts such as those between Armenians and Turks, Iraqis and Persians, and Jews and Muslims. 3) When performing for various Arab community groups (Syrian Americans, Egyptian Americans, Iraqi-Americans), we have to be clear about which repertoire speaks to which community. Some pieces have wide Arab appeal; others, for example, speak only to Egyptians. 4) Working with community groups and especially with community leaders, we end up playing public roles at life rituals: eulogizing people at funerals, attending engagement ceremonies, etc. It is not only about music! 9:20 4C6 Bi-lateral Negotiations in Bimusicality: The William and Mary Middle Eastern Music Ensemble Anne K. Rasmussen, The College of William and Mary The William and Mary Middle Eastern Ensemble plays in a variety of contexts from student festivals to academic conferences to Arab American community events. Our performance season culminates with a grand concert featuring a guest artist: a "real" Middle Easterner, whose style and repertoire we feature in our program. Here, I offer a number of specific examples that illustrate the negotiations in bi-musicality that occur in the process of planning and rehearsing a program. In offering my own version of the perceptions and expectations of myself, my student musicians, our multifaceted audience, and our guest artists, I want to explain how various versions of "the tradition" can co-exist and the ways in which such musical and social negotiations can extend our experiences as performing ethnomusicologists. 9:30 4C7 Who IS it About, Anyhow?: Do we Impose our own World Views in Teaching "Ethno" Ensembles? Ted Solís, Arizona State University Over the years, I've directed a number of performing ensembles in various ethnomusicology programs. I often find myself struck by the fact that the sum of what I'm presenting, creating, and teaching is in many ways as much filtered by my interests and attractions to other cultures as it is a "faithful" transmission of any traditional body of music and performance practice. My question: can we convey "cultural experiences" and interpretations of them and bracket out our own filtering selves? To what extent is this possible, if at all, or even important? Do our students' responses reveal how much is bracketed and how much corresponds to an "authentic" practice? 9:40 4C8 Should I Feel Distressed about teaching Gamelan Music in the Cornfields of Iowa? Roger Vetter, Grinnell College In this paper I reflect over my artistic and educational angst in regard to the teaching of a music from a culture of which I am not a member and the presentation of programs of this music to audiences in the Midwestern United States. Issues of artistic authenticity, cultural exploitation and misrepresentation, and audience misinterpretation have for years revisited me. My personal reflection over these matters results not in explaining them away, but balancing them with other observations that help me rationalize positive consequences of teaching a college performance ensemble of another culture's music. Session 4D Jazz, Blues, and Hybridity 8:30-10:30 Friday, November 19 Chair: Ingrid Monson, Washington University 8:30 4D1 A Deconstruction of a Constructed Genre: A Critical View of the "Oakland Blues" Jeffrey Callen, University of California, Santa Barbara Histories of American popular music have tended to create a clear bifurcation of "White" and "Black" musical genres. Country music has been portrayed as a genre primarily drawn from Anglo-Scottish roots. The significant influences of African-Americans on the genre have been diminished or placed in a carefully constructed pre-history. African American musical genres have also been defined within strict boundaries--stripped of gray areas of inter-cultural contact, influence and collaboration. My thesis is that the creation of racially-defined marketing categories by the commercial recording industry was a primary factor in creating this history. This paper critically examines the dynamics of this process in the creation of a sub-genre of African American music, the "Oakland Blues." The "Oakland Blues" is typically described as a transplanted offshoot of "Texas Country Blues" that developed in the blues clubs of West Oakland and North Richmond in the San Francisco Bay Area during World War II. My 1998 fieldwork in North Richmond revealed that the music African Americans performed in local blues clubs defies a simplified "black and white" classification. In fact, this music drew upon a diverse range of styles and influences, including blues, jazz, swing and country music. The "Oakland Blues" genre was primarily the creation of a single record producer, Bob Geddins, through both his recordings and his widely reported recollections. This paper draws heavily upon the recollections of blues musicians Jimmy McCracklin and Clarence "Little Red" Tenpenny and gospel musician Fred Jackson. 9:00 4D2 Midnight Sunrise in Jahjouka: Echoes of an Intercultural Collaboration A. Scott Currie, New York University The free funk/jazz fusion jam on Prime Time's album Dancing in Your Head builds to a final climax, then yields incongruously to North African rhaitas and drums accompanying a solo saxophonist. What does this surreal juxtaposition of avant-garde disco and traditional world music signify and what does it reveal about processes of intercultural collaboration? In 1973, African-American saxophonist, and Prime Time leader Ornette Coleman traveled to Jahjouka, Morocco for the Boujeloudiya rites accompanying the Muslim feast of 'Aid el-Kebir. Although originally invited as a spectator, he brought along his saxophone and portable Nagra recorder to tape himself performing with the Master Musicians of Jahjouka, internationally renowned through the efforts of poet Brion Gysin and Rolling Stones guitarist Brian Jones. Overcoming record-company objections, Coleman eventually managed to release "Midnight Sunrise"--a short excerpt from hours of recorded collaborations--on Prime Time's debut album. This paper offers a close reading of this recorded encounter, informed by archival research and artist interviews, as a case study in the poetics and politics of intercultural collaboration. Key moments of disjuncture and convergence emerging from the analysis of transcribed passages provide insight into the collaborative process as it unfolded in performance, and suggest correspondences between social and musical processes. Further contextualized by the mythologizing discourses that engendered and shpaed this collaboration, "Midnight Sunrise" not only represents a critical juncture in the artists' respective careers, but also reveals the structuring role of racial and colonial ideologies in the incipient world-music political economy. 9:30 4D3 "World Jazz:" Expanding the Borders of Jazz History E. Taylor Atkins, Northern Illinois University The master narrative of jazz history assumes the basic unity and universality of the music: it is the story of a "natural" stylistic evolution and the "geniuses" who shaped the music's development. Scott DeVeaux and a handful of other scholars have questioned the logic and coherence of this narrative and the motivations for its construction. I do the same but from a different perspective, rooted in my own research for a manuscript on the history of jazz in Japan, and in my reading of the literature on jazz in Europe, Africa, and Asia. I propose that broadening the setting of the historical narrative of jazz beyond the borders of the United States could fundamentally reshape our thinking about the music. Studying jazz in non-American cultural contexts potentially broadens or reconfigures the pantheon of "jazz innovators" who have determined the stylistic direction of musics collectively known as "jazz." Such research also potentially undermines our assumptions about jazz's universality, by highlighting the conflicts it sparked throughout the world. Finally, the study of jazz outside of US borders problematizes the notion that jazz expresses quintessentially American values by focusing on the "local" meanings and values the music expresses wherever it is performed. Omitting non-American developments and jazz artists from the narrative is akin to calling the Super Bowl victors "World Champions," when no foreign competitor has even been engaged. 10:00 4D4 >From Cuban Rhythms to Latin Jazz Raul Fernandez, University of California, Irvine In this paper, I argue that "Latin Jazz" as a genre emerged over the past six decades, not, as some would say, "overnight," after the historic meeting between jazz trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie and Afro-Cuban drummer Chano Pozo in the late 1940s. The fusion of jazz with the Cuban son began in the early 1940s in both the United States and Cuba. After the initial enthusiasm for Cubop in the U.S., the new form received repeated reinforcements, mainly from Cuban percussionists, which solidified its position in American and Cuban popular music in the 1950s. The activity of an entire generation of Afro-Cuban musicians in the decades of the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s was responsible for the expansion of Latin Jazz into a separate genre, and for the increasing popularity of Cuban rhythms in general. Using evidence from the oral histories of Armando Peraza, Mongo Santamaria, Patato Valdés, Francisco Aguabella, Cachao López, Chocolate Armenteros, and Celia Cruz, collected under the auspices of the Smithsonian Jazz and Latino Music Oral History Programs, I show how these innovators broadened the rhythmic palate of the listening public. By incorporating patterns from the entire spectrum of Cuban music -- from the secret rhythms of Santeria to the public "drum corps" of carnaval -- these musicians created a genre that was both "listenable" and "danceable." Analysis of these and other musicians' contributions explains the continued creative vitality and distinct identity of Latin Jazz. Session 4E Sound Engineering as Cultural Production: Technology, Performativity, Phenomenonology 8:30-10:30 Friday, November 19 Chair: Paul D. Green, Pennsylvania State University Discussant: Thomas Porcello, Vassar College A tremendous and growing portion of the world's music is engineered through sophisticated sound technologies. These panelists are all sound engineers and published scholars who are committed to developing ethnomusicological approaches to the world's high-tech musical cultures. If approved, our panel will bring research on subjects such as stereo imaging, ambient effects, psycho-acoustical presence, computer-enhanced performativity, and multitrack syncretism more deeply into our Society's discourse. In addition, the panel develops Theme #5, "The Effects of Capitalism on Indigenous Music Making, Is Grey-Out No Longer an Issue?" Studio technology is perhaps the music industry's most crucial kind of capital, and studio hardware and software are rapid-turnover products that are themselves marketed by a centralized technology industry. Yet as we examine the meanings of engineered sounds, we find that simple models of global cultural grey-out do not engage the many complex ways that technologies serve diverse expressive and creative agendas. 8:30 4E1 Short Circuiting Perceptual Systems: Timbre in Ambient & Techno Music Cornelia Fales, University of California, Santa Barbara It's been said that the 90s is the decade of sound. In the realm of popular music, it might be more precise to say that the 90s is the decade of timbre. The availability of increasingly sophisticated technology has allowed musicians to explore the dimension of musical timbre free from the constraints of natural sources. The result is music that demonstrates with high clarity the effect of musical timbre on the listener--an effect that is often muted and difficult to examine when timbral variation is limited by the potential of acoustic instruments. This paper explores the use of timbre in techno and ambient music as it reflects characteristics of the culture that produces it. The paper begins with a demonstration of the canonical knowledge of sound that guides the ordinary listener in ordinary listening. By means of spectral analysis, the paper will then show a deliberate subverting of that knowledge in the surreal timbres of techno and ambient music. Finally, the paper will discuss the effects of these sounds in light of statements from devotees of the music concerning the world the music creates for them. 8:55 4E2 Engineering Spaces in Nepal's Digital Stereo Remix Culture Paul D. Greene, Pennsylvania State University This paper examines the Nepalese pop genre of "remixes:" musical bricolages of filmsongs, folk music, classical musics, western pop, and sound effects, which are engineered in studios and played back by urban, cosmopolitan youths. In remixes, a sense of space is simulated in several ways. Through studio effects including reverb, delay, equalization, stereo imaging, and presence miking, sound engineers retain and transform traditional Nepalese notions of local spaces. For example, Nepalese classical music continues to be miked at a respectful distance, but the emphasis on altitude, whereby distance up a hill or mountain indexes wealth and importance in a community, is unarticulated. Spaces are also simulated in the featured vocalist's accompaniment, a montage of instrumental backdrops which bring to mind Nepalese folk culture, high culture, America, India, and other generalized social "spaces" in turn. In addition, through creative playback practices (the when and where of playing purchased cassettes), youths map and remap their immediate social spaces, using played back sound as a kind of expandable and retractable architecture. Rather than argue that remixes challenge or prescribe cultural identities from above, or that they are purely "authentic" self-expressions of youth culture, I analyze the recordings as tools to create and recreate spaces in which youths can contemplate and shape their own identities. These spaces variously limit and open up the listener's imagination, in some ways inspiring pleasurable but escapist fantasies, and in other ways inspiring constructive reflection on the modern, cosmopolitan Nepal. 9:20 4E3 Women Mix Engineers and the Power of Sound Boden Sandstrom, University of Maryland, College Park This paper discusses the pragmatic, political, and social issues surrounding being a female sound engineer in a Western culture. How does gender affect access to the field? What are the gender differences in terms of cognition, strategies and mixing style? How do gender differences affect ones interaction with the musicians and the environment in which one is mixing? Issues of power and control are inherent in the process of mixing for both live sound reinforcement and for recordings. This paper explores whether the use of this power is gendered and if one mixes differently as a result of the social construction of gender. Do these differences contribute to the mixing process and the actual product? I draw from my experiences as a sound engineer and owner of a small but successful sound company in the Washington, DC area, City Sound Productions formerly, Woman Sound, Inc. as well as interviews of other female engineers and producers and musicians I worked with. I focus on the training of female sound engineers during the feminist movement of the 1970's. The aesthetic of this period was one of shared learning and creativity which contributed to possible listening and mixing differences. Another gendered phenomena is that many female engineers have experienced being perceived as gender neutral while mixing among different cultures as well as within their own. This opens up the possibility of communication among genders in situations in which there is normally separation. Use of technology has the ironic ability to both make whatever gender differences that exist greater as well as to neutralize these differences. 9:45 4E4 Engineering Techno-Hybrid Grooves in Indonesian Sound Studios Jeremy Wallach, University of Pennsylvania Contemporary Indonesian popular music is a hybrid formation in which sounds of traditional acoustic instruments are combined with electronic and electrified timbres in sophisticated multitrack studios. While the powerful sounds of traditional Indonesian instruments, particularly gongs, have been described as invoking the forces of nature, electronic timbres are more often said to index the manmade cacophony of modern urban life. Ethnographic research in the cities of in Jakarta and Bandung, the two most important centers of popular music production in Indonesia, suggests that Indonesians have adopted the natural/synthetic and "dirty"/"clean" sonic distinctions often employed by popular music producers and consumers in the west, but also seem more willing to replace the acoustic sounds of traditional Indonesian instruments with electronic simulations. This paper will argue that the hybrid musical soundscapes created by Indonesian sound engineers are constitutive of an emergent, distinctively Indonesian, modernity in which the technological is intimately enmeshed in the poetics and pleasures of everyday life. Session 5A Ethnomusicology and History II--The Use of Printed Sources in Ethnomusicology 11:00-1:00 Friday, November 19 Chair: Judith McCulloh, University of Illinois Press 11:00 5A1 It's What They Say, Not How They Say It: Source Materials in (Ethno)Historical Ethnomusicology Erik D. Gooding, Indiana University In a recent general history of Native American/First Nations research in ethnomusicology, Richard Keeling (1997) noted the increased emphasis on historical, or ethnohistorical research. This trend is influenced by the use of two types of sources materials, sound recordings and written materials, either separate or in combination. While the emphasis in this type of research has been on the inclusion of historic sound materials to our research, this paper addresses the inclusion of written source materials through the method of ethnohistory. This method employs the analytical methods of history while simultaneously drawing upon the theoretical perspectives of anthropology. Drawing upon examples from my own research among the Dakotan peoples of the Plains of the United States and Canada, this paper will demonstrate the use, the problems and concerns, and hopefully the importance of using historic written source materials in our ethnomusicological writings. 11:30 5A2 Locating Lost Performances: An Ethnomusicological Approach to Historical Research. Gillian M. Rodger, Garland Publishing The anthropologist, Mary Des Chene, has likened the process of historical anthropological research to that of conducting research by eavesdropping on confidential conversations. The same is true for ethnomusicological research on historical topics. The information one gains is incomplete and one is not always aware of what is missing. As a result, one of the challenges facing an archival-based researcher is that of continually contextualizing the many fragmentary pieces of information found in those sources. On the other hand, archives allow a researcher to cover considerably greater spans of time than does fieldwork, and in some cases once thriving cultures are now accessible primarily through archival sources. Philip Bohlman's work on Eastern and Central European Jewish music amply illustrates this last point. In this paper, I will draw on my own research strategies, used while undertaking dissertation research on mid-nineteenth century American popular performance, to suggest one methodological approach to archive-based ethnomusicological research. I will argue that approaches more often used in fieldwork can be productive when applied to archival material and to an archival setting. I will also argue that such an approach is crucial in order to move beyond artifacts, which in my case include printed sheet music, to the performance conventions that brought life to past music traditions. 12:00 5A3 Musical References in the Jornal do Brasil, 1891-1998 Andrew L. Kaye, Albright College (Reading, Pennsylvania) Serial publications such as magazines and newspapers are often fruitful sources of data for historians of music. Titles with relatively long histories of continuous publication offer us the opportunity to explore questions of a diachronic nature, such as changes in the use of musical terminology or musical categories, and the rise or fall in interest in named musical genres. By extension, such research can offer potential insights on musical preferences of the reading public, and perhaps, to some degree, the greater society. The author has studied musical references in the Jornal do Brasio of Rio de Janeiro, a daily newspaper with a continuous history of publication since its inception on April 9, 1891. In order to construct a random series (but one which promised to have a meaningful musical content), I chose to study one issue per every ten years -- the first Sunday in April for each year ending in 8, covering the period 1891 to 1998 (one issue from 1891 was also included). In this paper, I will present several findings that emerged in this limited study. I will discuss the relative value of different musical genres and instruments, from operetta and música clássica to bossa nova and ię- ię-ię (one term for rock music) as they rise and fall in the series. A point of special interest is the relatively infrequent appearance of the term samba in the sample. Methodological problems and potentials associated with this type of research will also be discussed. 12:30 5A4 Embodied Experience: American Sheet Music Binders and Music in Daily Live, 1840-1860 Daniel Cavicchi, Rhode Island School of Design Musicologically-based histories of American music traditionally bracket off references to music in daily life and instead adhere to a formula of successive composers and styles. While ethnomusicologly provides a framework for moving beyond this formula toward an understanding of the totality of American musicking in the past, the main challenge remains a scarcity of primary sources about the musical experiences of those left out--amateur performers, dancers, and listeners. In this paper, I show how research methods from the history of the book, developed to locate the experiences of readers in the past, can be used also to unearth the musical experiences of ordinary people. In particular, I explain how sheet music binders put together by young, middle-class women and men in the mid-19th century serve to embody those individuals' musical worlds. Variations in the content, organization, printing, embossing, price, and marginalia of the binders not only provide a record of actual persons' musical tastes, perceptions, and experiences, but together the binders point to the ways in which people used sheet music in Victorian America as a means for negotiating friendships and gender relations and for managing emotions. In the end, I argue that the case of sheet music binders uniquely enables a people-based inquiry into the musical past that is somewhat analogous to ethnomusicological fieldwork. By carefully putting together encounters with individuals as represented in the binders, one can build a detailed understanding of a musical culture. Session 5B Transnational Processes and the Local Production of Popular Music 11:00-1:00 Friday, November 19 Chair: Philip Schuyler, University of Washington 11:00 5B1 "We Just Copy...:" Rap and the Creolization of Culture in Northern Malawi John Fenn, Indiana University In the northern districts of Malawi (Central Africa), vibrant hip-hop scenes comprised of fans, performers, promoters and supporters have emerged within the last five years. While this musical culture is not restricted to north Malawi, I will focus on the social and cultural settings of rap music in two areas of this region, investigating the ways in which hip-hop supporters" I met in 1998-99 incorporate and use the music, along with its associated styles and attitudes, in their everyday lives. Preliminary fieldwork in the towns of Nkhata Bay and Mzuzu provides intriguing observations and insights on the development of rap's popularity in Malawi. Fans frequently told me that they are "just copying" what they see and hear in hip-hop materials from America, but do not copy "all the way." Stars like Tupac Shakur figure highly in daily Malawian youth life, and the imagery of "gangstas" influences the style, language and attitude of many people I encountered. Using these observations as a base, I intend to explore the processes of culture that are embedded in the appreciation and/or performance of a musical style. Is the "copying" of rap music edging out traditional Malawian musical culture, or, rather, is a new "creolized" musical culture emerging? The ways in which the Malawian youth I met perceive and interpret the cultural material of rap music, and their relationship to it as a "western" music, illuminate issues of authenticity, originality and ownership that surround rap at global and local levels. 11:30 5B2 Capitalism and competition: changes in taarab music performance in Zanzibar Janet Topp Fargion, British Library National Sound Archive This paper provides a glimpse of changes in musical behavior in a single community, what I call the taarab community in Zanzibar, East Africa. From this we may be able to extrapolate for a global analysis. >From the time of independence in 1963 Zanzibar witnessed the advent of Julius Nyerere's Afrrican socialism, an experiment -- strongly upheld by Zanzibar's first president, Abeid Karume -- that closed the country's borders to foreign investors, imposed severely restricted import regulations, and promoted nationalization, largely at the expense of Arab and Islamic influences. This, coupled with the expense of the invasion of Uganda in 1979, brought Zanzibar to its knees. By 1985, when Ali Hassan Mwinyi replaced Nyerere, Zanzibaris were experiencing food rations and milk queues. Mwinyi moved the country rapidly towards economic liberalisation and democracy; today Zanzibar is one of the world's hottest tourist resorts, pre-independence Arab money is flooding back making a full range of basic and luxury items available, and the islands are locked in a political stand-off between its tow main political parties. The paper will examine how these economic and political developments have effected taarab music performance. It will highlight a move, between 1965 and 1985, towards the incorporation of local musical practices and aesthetics, the nationalization of music making, the breakdown of the segregation of the sexes; and from the mid-1980s, towards a rise in competition with the appreciation of music as commodity, demise of inter-group cooperation, and increased expression of traditional materialism. 12:00 5B3 Globalization and Fragmentation in the Local Production of Popular Musics Jocelyne Guilbault, University of California, Berkeley In ethnomusicology, as in many other disciplines, globalization has often been used as a synonym for universalization. At the nucleus of this internal logic has been the fear of homogenization of cultures and, by extension, of musical practices. Paradoxically, there has been at the same time an unprecedented proliferation of new popular musics around the globe. Explanations for this latter phenomenon run the gamut between seeing the proliferation of "difference" in popular musics as simply an extension and a systemic outcome of the new political economy and seeing this, conversely, as the sign of the gradual erosion of the hegemonic political and economic power of nation-states and of the traditional centers of power over the rest of the world. This paper does not aim to determine what is the ultimate "cause" for the simultaneous occurrence of the homogenization and the proliferation of new musics around the globe. Rather it seeks to examine how at the local level public discourses articulate the twin phenomena of globalization and fragmentation in the local production of popular musics. In the same vein, rather than making a priori identity the central issue in dealing with the phenomena of globalization and fragmentation, this study aims to examine the issues that have emerged at the local level as being at stake in such a process. The goal is to show how discourses on globalization and fragmentation in popular music serve to elaborate local cultural politics and governmental policies to deal with both the local and the global. To do this, this study focuses on public interviews with local influential personalities and published articles on the musical scene of Trinidad, West Indies, in the 1990s. Session 5C Issues in Indonesian Music 11:00-1:00 Friday, November 19 Chair: R. Anderson Sutton, University of Wisconsin, Madison 11:00 5C1 Music and Islam in Post New Order Indonesia Charles Capwell, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign During the latter part of Suharto's New Order regime, Indonesian Islam experienced increasingly greater freedom while sometimes confronting government cooption. In this paper, I wish to examine some of the trends in contemporary music making by Indonesian musicians who profess a specifically Islamic intent in their work and to see how this work contributes to a liberalizing view of the role of music in Islam and to a reshaping of Muslim identity that seeks to replace its "backward" associations with those of progressiveness and modernity. With music ranging from dangdut--Indonesia's most popular and Islamically inspired music--to the more elitist creations of the group Kyai Kanjeng--with its combination of gamelan and jazz elements--Indonesian Islamic musicians are striving to give artistic expression to an increasingly confident Islam. As Kenneth George has shown in a recent article discussing the creation of an Indonesian mushaf* in connection with celebration of the 50th anniversary of independence, "Artists play an instrumental role in promoting ideas about cultures and modernity and establishing institutional locations for the display of works that will undergo a continuous socialization by a culture-consuming public or publics" (1998:695-96). Even more in the realm of music than in that of the visual arts, I believe we can experience how Indonesian Muslims are contending with the opportunity and need to create an expressive art that serves as a means for working out responses to new social and cultural conditions and how these undergo "socialization by a culture-consuming public." *a beautifully calligraphed and canonical exemplar of the Koran Kenneth M. George; 1998, "Designs on Indonesia's Muslim Communities," Journal of Asian Studies, 57/3:693-713. 11:30 5C2 Creating Tari Tayub: Stories of Sundanese Dance History in West Java, Indonesia Henry Spiller, University of California, Berkeley Historical accounts of Sundanese dance typically present the same basic narrative: from agricultural ceremonies and recreational dances arose a context and repertory for stage performance. A juncture in this orthodoxy is the reification of "tari kursus" (staged choreographed solo dances) from precedents in "tari tayub" (improvised movements danced by aristocratic men at social occasions). My paper analyzes Sundanese dance historians' interpretations of this critical juncture and suggests what differences in their accounts tell us not only about the past, but about the present and future of Sundanese performing arts as well. The only certainty about "tari tayub" is that it no longer exists. In the first section of the paper, I cite historical sources to argue that the notion of "tari tayub" as a genre is recent, as is the application of the term "tayub" to aristocratic men's dance in West Java, and that the retroactive creation of "tari tayub" applies notions of "dance" and "genre" that are inherently inconsistent with men's improvised dance. In the paper's second section, I examine how Sundanese writers deploy "facts" of the past to create their own visions of what Sundanese dance should be in the present. Each of these accounts, while not "false" or even "misleading," constructs a unique history in service of the author's vision. History is not facts, but interpretations (and I have constructed yet another history in the process of deconstructing others). My paper reminds us that historical ethnomusicology's project is not simply fact-finding but story-telling as well. 12:00 5C3 The Changes in The Musical Style of Payangan Village Gamelans and their Repertoires Loren Nerell, University of California, Los Angeles Lelambatan (pl.) is part of the repertoire of the Balinese ensemble known as gamelan gong. This lelambatan repertoire is one of the most commonly used forms of music on the island of Bali, for it is the main musical expression used in conjunction with temple and religious ceremonies. Over the last sixty years most gamelan repertoires have gone through a transformation. In this time period a new dominating form of music, has emerged known as gamelan gong kebyar. This newer form of music, has changed gamelan music in two ways: 1) a stylistic change of the various repertoires. 2). a change in the instrumentation. Colin McPhee's work in Bali is today still regarded as some of the most important work done in the field. Yet, no restudy has been done on the material that McPhee collected in Bali. One of McPhee's informants was I Lunyuh from the village of Payangan, a court musician who was also the main teacher of gamelan in the areas around Payangan. The central task of my paper will be to demonstrate how the various musical forms in and around Payangan have changed over the last sixty years by comparing the material which McPhee collected in this area in the 1930s to material I gathered while doing fieldwork in the same area in the summers of 1994 and 1997. Session 5D Cajun and Tejano Music 11:00-1:00 Friday, November 19 Chair: Robert Bowman, York University 11:00 5D1 Out of the Rhythm Section: The Role of the Bajo Sexto in Tejano Conjunto S. Louis Winant, University of Washington Tex-mex conjunto evolved as a syncretic musical form in the early twentieth century in the Rio Grande border region. In the 1950's, as shown by Manuel Peńa (1985), conjunto became symbolic of ethnic and class identity for Mexican-Americans in south Texas; conjunto became Tejano conjunto. Much of the music's symbolism came to be embodied in the accordion, yet the accordion is not the only instrument with symbolic importance within the Tejano conjunto. The bajo sexto, a 12-string bass guitar, has formed a vital part of conjunto's sound since the style began. While the musical role of the bajo sexto has been acknowledged, its role in Tejano musical and ethnic identity has yet to be addressed. In this paper I will show how the bajo sexto has changed in terms of organology, musical role, as well as symbolic role as conjunto became first an ethnic marker for Tejanos and later one of several genres within the broad tejano music industry. This paper will draw upon my experience studying bajo sexto with Eva Ybarra at the University of Washington and research I conducted in San Antonio, Texas, in 1998 and 1999 among both makers and players of the bajo sexto. 11:30 5D2 Tejano vs. Norteńo: Dueling Accordions in the Texas-Mexican Border Region Catherine Ragland, CUNY Graduate School The majority of research on the evolution and cultural impact of accordion-based ensembles in the Texas-Mexican border region has been restricted to stylistic developments, players and audiences on the Texas side of the border. Today contemporary musica tejana or Tejano has developed a strong regional industry with several artists on Latin divisions of major labels and has gained worldwide recognition alongside other Latin music styles such as "salsa" and "cumbia." However, over the past 35 years, the parallel existence of musica norteńa (also known as Norteńo) on the Mexican side has become more popular among Mexican migrant and immigrant audiences throughout Texas and the U.S. In recent years, Norteńo's popularity has also stretched further south into Mexico. Tejano may be more recognized in this country (especially among the American-born Chicano population) due, in part, to the media focus on slain singing star Selena, three-time Grammy award winner Flaco Jimenez, the annual Tejano Music Awards and its status as regional Mexican-American popular music. However, it is Norteńo artists who travel more extensively throughout the US and Mexico as part of a wide-reaching and intricate network of Mexican-operated radio stations, dancehalls, clubs and recording studios and reaching much larger, and younger, audiences. This paper explores the parallel development and stylistic evolution of modern Norteńo and Tejano music in the Texas-Mexico border region amid racial conflict, high-stakes competition and social change. My research also touches on the impact of a newly formed "Tejano" identity in the mid-1960s which inspired the development of a Tejano music industry and star system while also alienating a newer and larger influx of Mexican migrants now traveling from other parts of Mexico (as opposed to the northeastern states). This is an important factor that encouraged the stylistic development of Norteno and the cultivation of a "new" Mexican-American community. The presentation will also include comparative examples of early accordionists from both sides of the border (i.e. Antonio Tanguma, Santiago Jimenez Sr.) as well as contemporary pioneers of the two popular genres (Los Alegres de Teran, Los Relampagos del Norte, Ramon Ayala, Little Joe y la Familia, La Tropa F). 12:00 5D3 In the Cajun Idiom: Technique and Musical Style in Diatonic Accordion Playing Mark F. DeWitt, Ohio State University Although originally restricted to fiddles, Cajun music has adopted the diatonic accordion in this century as its leading instrument, especially since World War II. This paper describes the ranges of functional variation among the instruments commonly used, but concentrates on the diatonic accordion, also known as the une rangée, or single-row button accordion. I discuss the role of the instrument and player in the ensemble, the idiomatic implications of the instrument on musical style, and also the implications of musical style on playing technique. How do the limitations of the instrument shape musical thinking, and how does musical thinking inspire playing technique on the instrument? I shall take into account physical requirements for playing the instruments, transcription and analysis of accordion performance, and verbal evaluations of accordion performance by informants. To conclude, I will consider theories of embodied music cognition and their relevance to emotion in light of this case study. Workshop 5E Breakin' Out In A Cold Sweat: Authorship, Ownership and Agency in the Digital Age 11:00-12:00 Friday, November 19 Chair: David Sanjek, BMI Archives This workshop, sponsored by the Popular Music Section,will consist of a half hour paper, a formal response and a discussion period. The paper explores the relationship between of digital sound technology and issues of ownership, authorship and agency. Copyright statutes depend upon the notion of "fixed form": intellectual property must consist of material that exists in a "hard copy"; is transmissible over time and space; and will be the same from one point of use to another. Obviously, music that is created and would not otherwise exist without digital technology possesses few of these qualities. That does not mean that the present copyright law undermines or outlaws such compositions, but the statutes nonetheless fail fully to address and protect the substance, moreover in some cases the very raison d'etre, of these works. Furthermore, their lack of fixity pricks holes in the statutes as well as makes more difficult the ownership, and subsequent protection of, that property. One element of authorship this workshop addresses is the apparent erasure of the individual author, or the "author effect" as it has been called. Works that do not exhibit or attest to the individual actions and efforts of concrete individuals fail to illustrate what I will refer to as the "sweat equity principle" - the fact that individual effort and agency must be a constituent, even visible part of music-making. Finally, the apparent absence of "sweat" in much digital music raises the consideration of whether individual agency is being eroded or more radically redefined. Session 5F Theorizing Asian American Musics: Identity, Negotiations, Multiplicity 11:00-1:00 Friday November 19 Chair: Deborah Wong, University of California, Riverside Discussant: Joseph S.C. Lam This panel features five presentations explicitly engaged with critical theory as a framework for considering Asian American music-making. While the musical cultures addressed are diverse (ranging from Asian American folk music, jazz, fusion, taiko, music theater, and pop), each presenter makes an argument for maintaining heterogeneous models for Asian America and Asian American expressive culture. Drawing on cultural studies, Ethnic Studies, and anthropology, these presentations situate Asian American music-making within dialogical processes of history and the construction/maintenance of difference in American society. Moving between issues of production and consumption, these presentations treat music as inherently political and Asian American engagements with music as a less through which to consider American ideologies of the foreign, the nation-state, American identity, and community. 11:00 5F1 Asian Persuasion: Processes of Intercultural Music Performance in Asian American Jazz Anthony Brown, Asian American Jazz Orchestra This multimedia presentation introduces the development of the Asian American jazz movement in the San Francisco Bay Area over the past twenty years. With roots in the social activism of the late 1960s and 70s as well as the tradition of jazz as social protest as represented by Billie Holiday, John Coltrane, Charles Mingus, and Max Roach, the Asian American jazz movement is an outgrowth of the free speech movement at UC Berkeley and the Third World strike at San Francisco State University. Musical coalitions including myself, Mark Izu, Jon Jang, Francis Wong, and others influenced by the Chicago-based Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians (AACM) have culminated in the Asian American Jazz Festival, Asian Improv Records, and the Asian American Jazz Orchestra. The music of these composers is examined in terms of their intercultural conceptual approaches to composition and improvisation, and performative styles and conventions drawn from jazz, and traditional and contemporary Asian, European, and African music. Issues of cultural empowerment and identity formation are examined, particularly regarding music inspired by the World War II internment of Japanese Americans and the 1987 Congressional resolution proclaiming jazz as a "rare and valuable national American treasure, . . . a unifying force, bridging cultural, religious, ethnic, and age differences in our diverse society." The salient features of this internationally-acclaimed music are highlighted in video and recorded excerpts, transcriptions and scores. 11:20 5F2 Folk and Fusion: Asian American Musical Identities in the 1970s Oliver Wang, University of California, Berkeley This paper focuses on two predominant forms of Asian American music-making in the 1970s: folk influenced by the American 1960s folk tradition, and fusion styles combining jazz, funk and pop. The theoretical framework that guides the paper presumes that, for Asian Americans, music and social identity have been mutually constitutive forces that help imagine an alternative community both inside and outside of the American mainstream. In other words, this paper argues that Asian American music has been a means through which Asian Americans have both claimed an American identity denied to them through by the state and national culture, as well as a way to fashion an alternative community to the national polity. In particular, this paper examines folk and fusion as two distinct, yet not dissimilar approaches. In the case of Asian American folk artists like A Grain of Sand, folk music became a signifier of American identity and the performance of folk helped these artists lay claim to an American identity rooted in a sense of the communal and progressive. At the same time, the outspoken content of folk songs laid out an alternative set of Asian American politics that subverted and criticized the mainstream values of American society. In the case of fusion groups however, form was an important statement of both inclusion to American society, especially in imaging a diverse polyglot of cultures as being representative of America. But it also was a way to signify alterity, through the blending of Asian instrumentation and musical practice within a Western aesthetic. Fusion became a way for groups like Hiroshima to fashion a "sound" for Asian America, one grounded in the hybrid and syncretic. This approach both acknowledges how the Asian American political movement of the 1970s significantly affected Asian American cultural producers, but also shows how music is a key site for identity formation as well, suggesting a dialogical relationship between community ideologies and cultural product. 11:40 5F3 Finding an Asian American Audience: The Problem of Listening Deborah Wong, University of California, Riverside Reception, consumption, and audience remain undertheorized in ethnomusicology and performance studies. Most work on Asian American music-making (my own included) has focused on composers and performers, but this presentation will consider the listening practices of several Asian Americans. In talking at length with Asian American friends and acquaintances of several generations, I am inspired by My Music (1993) and its lesson that people have considerable expertise about how they use and value music in their lives. This paper thus emphasizes ethnography as an essential inroad to the politics of everyday life, in this case, the politics of Asian American listening habits. Listening practices are a crucial interstice for commodity capitalism and subject formation. At once intimate, individual, and inflected by global capitalist systems, listening is a site where considerable slippage occurs between agency and coercion. Neither producers nor consumers lie outside the sphere of commodity capitalism, but some of the most challenging work in cultural studies considers where and how intervention can matter. Listening can be treated as a site "where social transformation appears in material form" (Kondo 1997). This presentation follows these issues through my conversations with two Asian American friends about their listening practices. One friend, a Japanese American university administrator in his fifties, reflects at length on his preference for African American popular musics during his childhood/young adulthood and his subsequent shift to mainstream White American musics during college. The other, a Filipino American undergraduate, explains his preference for hip-hop as a joining of the aesthetic and the political. I address these two listening histories as particular windows on Asian American strategies for identity construction, arguing that such listening practices are constitutive sites for Asian American subject formation. 12:00 5F4 Musical Spaces and Identity Politics: Negotiating an Asian American Existence in New York City, the Case of Soh Daiko. Paul Yoon, Columbia University Although many scholarly works assume or promote the a priori existence of Asian Americans (Wei 1993, Takaki 1989, Aguilar-San Juan 1994, Revilla, et al. 1993, Hongo 1995, Barringer 1993), the Asian American category is by no means natural or neutral. Rather it arises primarily from an Anglo-American conception of all Asians being the same, specifically Asians of Far East Asian descent (Eng 1998, Lowe 1996 & 1991, Espiritu 1993). Of course, presumed for Asian American activism or recent scholarship is the belief that this objectifying external perception can also initiate internal cohesion. The question then becomes how and when do these internal and external perceptions play with, work around, and/or contend with each other? In this paper I will address these issues by focusing on the New York City based Taiko (Japanese drum) group Soh Daiko. I argue that while Soh Daiko actively creates a musical space for itself as an Asian American group, it, and Taiko in general, is also perceived in ways which exotify the group as being a Japanese group (from Japan, which is not the case), or an "Oriental" group, or a Japanese American group, to the exclusion of other hyphenated Americans. I will show how Soh Daiko not only counters these constructions while working within the confines of a larger hegemonic delineation of the group as Asian American, but also promotes them, both consciously or tacitly, in certain performance situations. 12:20 5F5 Journeys: Rethinking Asian American Cultural Identity Through Music Su Zheng, Wesleyan University From its early days, creating an entirely new "Asian American cultural identity" had been an essential issue of the Asian American movement. But recent Asian American cultural criticism has sharply problematized this notion in their critiques on essentializing and homogenizing Asian Americans and Asian American cultural identities. Ethnomusicological interest in "Asian American music," as related to the politicized concept "Asian American," has been on the increase. However, my contention is that an unexamined adaptation of the concept "Asian American music" runs the risk of both reducing a complex transformative discourse to an exclusionary ahistorical paradigm and erasing differences and multiplicity in Asian American musics. In their effort to reverse the perceived perpetual foreignness of Asians in America, some Asian Americanists have de-emphasized the continuation of Asia to America, and rejected diasporic cultural forms, including Asian musics. But can the U.S. borders within which minority discourses have been formulated and ethnic histories written still remain an absolute imperative that insists on its defining authority and significance when capitalism, media transmissions, cultural productions, and social agents have been transgressing, disrupting, and subverting them? My paper will address these issues through discussion of two recent music theater works centered around the concept of journey by Fred Ho (The New Adventures of Monkey) and Tan Dun (Marco Polo). By comparing their approaches towards diasporic musical expressions and cultural references, I will consider Lisa Lowes (1991) proposition of replacing the common theme of "vertical" model of culture in Asian American discourses which focuses on the processes of "becoming American" through the loss of "original" Asian cultural traits, with a "horizontal" model which celebrates "differences and intersections" as empowering means in American cultural politics 1:00-2:30 Performance: Western/Asian Hybridity in Art Music Composition Jonathan Kramer, North Carolina State University; Christopher Adler, University of North Carolina, Greensboro Hybridity of musical languages is one of the defining features of twentieth century composition. Composers from Debussy to Colin McFee, Alan Hovhaness, and Lou Harrison have used Asian materials freely in their work. Indeed, the discipline of Ethnomusicology is to a large part responsible for the availability of Asian sounds and compositional procedures to composers of art music in the West. At the same time, Asian musicians (Tan Dun, Toro Takumitsu, Chinary Ung, I Nyoman Windha, etc.) are obtaining Western-style academic training and gaining footholds at the forefront of late twentieth century stylistic movements. Cellist Kramer, who has done extensive study as both performer and scholar of traditions of India and Korea, and composer Adler will present a performance/discussion on the theme of hybridity. The presentation will feature Cambodian composer Chinary Ung's Khse Buon for solo cello and a premiere by Adler of a composition for cello and traditional Thai instruments. Educated at Manhattan School of music and Columbia, Ung undertook an extensive study of Kmer and other Asian traditions following the "Killing Fields" of the late 1970's, fashioning a pan-Asian musical language. Adler's compositions are informed by an intensive, long-term study of the musics of Thailand and he himself performs traditional and new compositions on both ranaat ek and khaen. Discussion on the aesthetic and ethical issues raised by compositions which attempt to merge Eastern and Western musical languages-techniques, timbres, modes, tuning systems, etc.-will be led by performer Kramer and composer/performer Adler. Session 6A Ethnomusicology and History III--The Construction of History 2:30-4:30 Friday, November 19 Chair: Charlotte Frisbie, Southern Illinois University, Edwardsville 2:30 6A1 Where's the riot in "Zoot Suit Riot?" Charles Sharp, University of California, Los Angeles The song "Zoot Suit Riot" by the popular neo-swing group the Cherry Poppin' Daddies was on the Billboard charts for over thirty-four weeks and has sold over one million copies. This seems somewhat ironic for a song that refers to the horrors of the actual Zoot Suit Riots, which were a series of violent attacks on Mexican-American youth by White service men in Los Angeles during 1943. Countless newspaper articles praise the song and the band for, above all else, their sense of style. I argue that, regardless of how it is portrayed by the Cherry Poppin' Daddies, their fans, and the media, the song can be read for its political content. I examine how the mainstream media has erased any political message, manufacturing a product based on nostalgia, which doesn't include the reality of riots. With critical theory, especially that of bell hooks' concept of "eating the other," I show how the past has been othered, which reduces difference into a style. This commodification depoliticizes such songs as "Zoot Suit Riot", making it merely another tune suitable for dancing. Using the riot as signifier of the past eclipses the Chicano victims of the actual riots. Through the critical examination of commodification, we can open up such dialogues that lie hidden just under the surface of popular culture. 3:00 6A2 "Contexting" and the Creation of Meta-Narratives: The Historicizing of Popular Music on VH-1 Jason Oakes, Columbia University Western popular music seems to be increasingly historicized and rationalized, whether in the explosion of rock and pop biographies, box-set packages and other recording compliations, or in the creation of the Rock 'n' Roll Hall of Fame. Why has the construciton of historical meta-narratives become predominant within musical genres that are supposedly based in ephemerality and disposability? Can this historicizing tendency be ascribed to generational nostalgia, pre-millennial summation, or postmodernist versioning? To address these questions I will take a detailed look at the programming of VH-1 (a cable music channel) which currently features "documentary" shows such as Behind the Music, Legends, and Before They Were Rock Stars, as well as Pop-up Video (a "making-of " video show), Rock 'n' Roll Jeopardy (a rock history game- show), and rebroadcasts of American Bandstand. VH-1 has greatly increased its viewership by shifting its programming focus away from music videos. Shows that use a strategy referred to as "contexting" are designed to hold viewers' attention by creating a narrative framework. Additionally, these programs create a template for mass-media reception using techniques that have previously been associated with subcultural groups. Meta-narratives are formed through the collection and re-contextualization of popular culture artifacts. Methodologically, I will use an ethnographic approach in the study of this mediascape. Data will be drawn from interviews with show producers and particpants, readings of audience reception based on internet discussion groups and direct questioning, and also in a musically-based content analysis of the shows themselves. 3:30 6A3 Kalenda from Colonial Origins to Contemporary Invention: A Study in Distant and Recent History Julian Gerstin, Western Kentucky University Dozens of historical descriptions of the dance known as kalenda (kalinda, calenda) provide evidence of a widespread, neo-African syncretic dance/music early in Caribbean colonial history. Yet the descriptions do not match, ranging from male stick-fighting to erotic couple dancing to adaptations of French contredanse. Tracing the history of colonial kalendas suggests (1) that an early syncretic or transcultural form evolved within the first few generations of slavery; (2) that it continued evolving into a number of local derivatives; and (3) that tracing these evolutions underscores connections between islands settled by the French, and the importance of French colonialism throughout the Caribbean. This history also argues for the value of comparing contemporary kalendas and cognate dances, particularly some of the less-well-known traditions of the smaller islands. The paper then focuses on Martinique, where several distinct dances either are named kalenda, or link to kalenda's history through similarities of choreography and instrumentation. I demonstrate the connection of one 18th-century kalenda to the dance currently known as mabelo. I then describe how various parties (performers, folklorists, musicologists) portray the authenticity of one or another type of kalenda, focusing on an erotic couple version, which I demonstrate was invented by tourist troupes after WWII. This foray into recent musical history helps demonstrate how contemporary constructions of Martinican identity and culture use, and abuse, both the colonial and the recent past. 4:00 6A4 A Drum by Any Other Name Jane Freeman Moulin, University of Hawaii at Manoa As ethnic groups search for musical icons that will differentiate them from their neighbors and allow them to proclaim their cultural uniqueness in an expanding global world, knowledge of earlier musical practices and the tracing of artistic histories become ever more useful. For some places in the Pacific, however, the results of ethnographic fieldwork alone are not yielding answers to the questions about tradition that are so important to Islanders today. One such case involves the Tahitian slit-drum, one of the primary instruments for dance accompaniment in French Polynesia. While the instrument enjoys a dominant place in contemporary Tahitian musical culture, its obscure history has fostered both heightened artistic tensions with neighboring islands and a sense of cultural angst. Tahiti's combination of a long-standing openness to innovation and change, far-reaching social and cultural developments, and extensive population movements make it impossible to reconstruct the early story of dance drums from purely ethnographic fieldwork. In such case, a combined approach that weaves together the methods of historical musicology and ethnography may be more appropriate to the nature of the work itself as well as the needs of the community involved. The last two decades have been a time of increased regional emphasis on tradition in the Pacific. For Tahitians, however, looking backward raises the uncomfortable question of where to turn when the previous links to traditional oral history are so shattered and when history seems so impoverished. Tahitians who are concerned with culture and heritage appear resigned to a perceived cultural loss. Tahitians now believe, for example, that the slit-drum is a recent import to Tahiti from the Cook Islands or other islands to the West--a view reinforced by the repeated, often vociferous, accusations of their neighbors in the Cook Islands. This paper challenges that assumption and, by using historical methods to illuminate contemporary musical knowledge, expands current ideas of the history and terminology associated with the slit-drum on Tahiti. Session 6B Dance and Social Meaning 2:30-4:30 Friday November 19 Chair: Amy Stillman, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor 2:30 6B1 Ballroom Dance: The Appeal and Problem of the Exotic Joanna Bosse, Millikin University During this century, ballroom dance/music has developed into a highly codified tradition accommodating a complex hierarchical structure of subgenres and explicit documentation outlining criteria for its judgment. Some of the oldest dances, such as the waltz and tango are "classic" dances and hold their places at the top of this hierarchy, while the hustle and salsa, the newest additions, are placed at the bottom in the category of "street" dances. Using a combination of ethnographic and historical approaches, this paper explores the nature of this hierarchy--what motivates and perpetuates its existence and how it is that dances can rise within this structure over time. More specifically, I am concerned with the preponderance of Latin American dance genres, their inclusion in this hierarchy, and the implications of their incorporation. It is based on fieldwork with ballroom dancers living in the midwest United States and supplemented with historical data useful for placing this specific case study within the larger national context of relations between European Americans and Latin Americans in the Twentieth Century. Throughout the history of ballroom dancing, its North American proponents, primarily upper-class Euro-Americans, have been both intrigued and outraged by what they believe to be the highly sexual and exotic nature of Latin American couple-dance genres such as tango and samba. In this paper I suggest that it is precisely the contradictory nature of these reactions, in conjunction with other contributing factors, that have stimulated the development of ballroom dance/music and its hierarchical structure. 3:00 6B2 Oooooooooo!! That's My Ssong!!: The Rupture of the Get-down, Rapture of African American Bodies Kyra D. Gaunt, University of Virginia Gestural and kinesic cues can signal the ways of being and knowing blackness as an embodied ideology offering an avenue into understanding African American musicking beyond visual miscues of skin color, dress, or colloquialisms. The sonic ideals of black popular music are composed and performed to engender relationships among parts of the body, to accompany bodies in concert with other bodies, and to allow improvised "habits of movement" (Matory, unpublished mss., 1997)--what I call "paradigmatic performativity"--that then represent African American expressivity in space and time. The display and performance of exuberance reflects a certain "controlled freedom" (Floyd 1995) in being black that extends beyond the dance floor. This paper will examine the significance and interaction of sounds and kinesthesia in rapturous moments of black social interaction particularly at DJed parties and informal social gatherings for dance. Moments of elation can mark and symbolize relationality, community, and power, point to aesthetic ideals in the selection and succession of songs, and serve as frames for subsequent interactions and discourse. Shared social exuberances also contribute to the lingua franca of African American vernacular language (of the tongue, the body, and musical styles) and discourse that later informs the visual and sonic dimensions of popular music and videos. The negotiation of style, ethnicity, and gender will also be discussed. 3:30 6B3 Shifting Selves: Embodied Metaphors in Dance Tomie Hahn, Tufts University This presentation opens with a brief dance to demonstrate codeswitching metaphors present in performances of Japanese "traditional" dance by Japanese Americans. This paper proposes that, through the introduction and enactment of multiple identities via metaphor in Japanese dance, Japanese Americans are provided with a means of approaching their complex identities in America. Although I will focus on the Japanese American experience, dancers of other Asian styles (where codeswitching is present) have spoken to me of an embodied sense of identity through metaphor. Japanese traditional dance is primarily based on a narrative. To convey the story a vocalist narrates the plot and provides the voices of the individual characters. In turn, dancers express the narrative with their bodies. Often one dancer shifts smoothly yet convincingly between a wide variety of characters to unfold the story. This trained dance ability to "shift" between characters metaphorically mirrors a social coordination of self present and respected in daily life in Japan. Social anthropologists have noted that `self' in Japan is relational, and that the conceptual flexibility of self permits individuals to interact in a wide variety of social levels. I have observed that Japanese dance training, as a means of transmitting embodied cultural knowledge, simultaneously transmits concepts of a shifting, or flexible sense of self. When Japanese traditional dance is transplanted and taught in the United States, the Japanese sensibility of "shifting" between characters within a dance as well as conceptual metaphors of a flexible sense of self are transmitted. For Japanese Americans and biracial individuals, additional levels of identity shifting and meaning are layered onto this "traditional" performance. Session 6C The Musical Indigenization of Christian Ritual 2:30-4:30 Friday, November 19 Chair: T.M. Scruggs, University of Iowa This panel will explore Christian ritual as a musical point of intersection between the indigenous and extra-local. The panel presentations will privide cross-cultural case studies of the indigenization of various types of Christian worship, with examples from Central America, southern and eastern Africa and northern India. 2:30 6C1 Bulabo: Indigenizing "Sacred Power" in Sukumaland, Tanzania Gregory Barz, Vanderbilt University In the introduction to Enchanting Powers: Music in the World's Religions, Lawrence Sullivan suggests that religious music is particularly powerful, especially in its ability, its "mimetic capacity," to accommodate other realities within its performance as well as stimulate and inspire other realities. It is within the performance of rituals that the political and the sacred often combine in their effort to create a musical fusion, as Philip Bohlman suggests elsewhere in Enchanting Powers. In this paper I extend Sullivan's thesis concerning religious music's ability to adapt sacred power to new cultural expressions by focusing on Bulabo, an annual ng'oma (drum and dance) festival among the Sukuma people of Tanzania celebrating the feast of Corpus Christi. Sponsored by the Sukuma Museum and elders of traditional Sukuma dance societies, Bulabo was originally conceived in the early 1950s as a way of incorporating Sukuma songs and dance into church rituals. The week long festival centers on the ritual processional of Corpus Christi, involving competitive dance, singing, and other musical performances. Bulabo creates sacred ritual spaces within which traditional Sukuma culture is performed. Yet in many ways the sacred power of Bulabo as religious music moves beyond the promotion of Sukuma culture toward the facilitation and incorporation of external realities. Such contemporary realities are provoked into resonance, especially in dance competitions between the Bagika and Bagalu dance societies. My reflections on Bulabo draw on fieldwork in interlacustrine East Africa, as well as on earlier work with Kwaya singing communities along coastal Tanzania. 3:00 6C2 Inculturation is Indianization not Hinduization Stephen Duncan, Eastern New Mexico University Music has long been one of the most important aids to worship in the Catholic Church. The Second Vatican Council sought to make both liturgy and music more accessible to the faithful. The Church responded by seeking to incarnate itself in the local community. Non-Western peoples were both allowed and encouraged to use the culture and traditions of their lands in their worship. Native dress, musical instruments and architecture were borrowed and a renewal of the worship life of the Church began. This paper explores the inculturation of Catholic liturgy in India through the documents of the Second Vatican Council along with the Post-Conciliar documents of the Roman Curia and the documents of the Catholic Bishops' Conference of India (C.B.C.I.). The development of the Bhakti (devotion) Path within Hinduism gave rise to two musical forms that have been adopted by the Catholic Church in India: bhajan and kirtan. By the beginning of the Second Vatican Council there were three Rites in India: The Latin Rite, the Syro-Malabar Rite and the Syro-Malankara Rite. Each of these is now exploring the use of indigenized music in the liturgy. The CBCI has promoted the use of Indian music and art in all aspects of the liturgy. The most common adaptation (outside of the vernacular languages) is the use of the Indian musical genre of bhajan. The presentation will include audience participation in bhajans, following those published by Sangeeta Abhinay Academy of Music and Dance (Bombay, India). 3:30 6C3 Popularizing Sacred Performance: A View from 1990s South Africa Carol Muller, University of Pennsylvania In a New Republic article, Katherine Bergeron analyzes the popularity of the Chant recording on 1994 American Classical and Pop music charts. She reads this popularization of sacred performance as a late 20th century European American culture response that articulates a desire to connect with a virtual sanctity as a form of spiritual tourism, a kind of materialist exoticism. In this paper, I contrast Bergeron's Chant narrative about sacred music in America, with a controversial recording of sacred music made by a member of one of South Africa's oldest indigenous religious communities, ibandla lamaNazaretha. While both the US and South African producers repackaged sacred music to extend their markets, the reception of the recordings has been significantly different. In the first section, I briefly summarize first the early 20th century transformation of the Euro-American "hymn" in ibandla lamaNazaretha to suit contemporary aesthetic ideals of "Africanness," including sacred dance performance, and second, the consolidation of a Nazarite performance (ca. 1920-1985). The paper focuses on recent changes to the Nazarite "hymn" repertory with the introduction of organ accompaniment and a "temple choir" (ca. 1987), and subsequent versions of the hymns performed in a more current and commodified gospel style. I examine musical changes to the Nazarite repertory on the recording, and the responses of members to these shifts. I argue that tensions in ibandla lamaNazaretha have arisen out of a shifting sense of the boundaries of the sacred and its clash with the marketplace in a rapidly transforming late 20th sociopolitical environment. 4:00 6C4 Contradictions of Musical Vernacular and Sacred Ritual: Latin American "Folk Masses" and the Misa Campesina Nicaragnense T.M. Scruggs, University of Iowa While within Catholicism there has been a long history of the use of local languages and musics in the mission to Christianize the Americas, the celebration of mass has strictly conserved both linguistic (Latin) and musical European content. The pronouncements of Vatican II (1962-65) led to the widespread introduction of vernacular language and in several parts of Latin America it also inspired the creation of masses utilizing the "musical vernacular," in effect, the integration of local folk music into the ritual in place of music retaining the estalished European style. New masses influenced by the movement known as Liberation Theology further altered the lyric content to include a stance of a "preferential option for the poor." The best known of these latter masses was the Misa Campesina Nicaragnense [Nicaraguan Peasant Mass]. In this paper I examine the manner by which this newly composed "folk mass" deliberately draws from and recontextualizes local musical traditions in an attempt to propose a new set of meanings for the Catholic ritual and a different engagement between worshipers, the church establishment and the community at large. A primary focus is the multiple conceptions of the appropriate role of music making in the process of religious fulfillment. I look at ways in which the musical expression of political advocacy, ethnic identity, religious belief and the meanings assigned by different sectors of the religious community to particular musical forms and instruments intersect with and reveal ethnic and national concerns. Session 6D Music, Community, and the Internet 2:30-4:30 Friday, November 19 Chair: René T.A. Lysloff, University of California, Riverside Despite a relatively brief existence, the Internet has created radically new modes of communication and self-expression among a growing segment of the world population with access to its technology. Perhaps most significantly, the web has provided a space for the extension and/or creation of communities--serious, playful, and imagined--that reenvision the parameters of human interaction. When communities of common interest relocate or form anew online, they exist in varying degrees of separation from the corporeal world. For many users, the web is merely another tool in the arsenal of communication technologies available to their pre-existing communities. On the other end of this spectrum, however, lies the "simulated" community, a web of interaction without referent in the "actual" world. This panel will explore the relationship between the virtual and actual worlds maintained by a number of Internet-based musical communities, and the loosening of referentiality in that relationship as virtual simulation occurs. Each paper will present an ethnography of a particular web community, positioning its "relations of commonality" (Shawn Wilbur) and modes of expression within a larger discourse on an emergent technoculture. We will also examine the ambiguous social space created by the Internet as a site for creative expression and counter-hegemonic activity, a space nevertheless subject to the mediations and impositions of an increasingly dominant commercialism. 2:30 6D1 S(t)imulating Community: Virtual Drum Corps and the Hyperreal Jonathan Ritter, University of California, Los Angeles Rooted in neighborhood clubs and fraternal organizations, the American drum and bugle corps activity is practically and ideologicallly organized around the idea of "community." The advent of web communication in the early 1990s served to solidify and expand that community through promotional websites, chatrooms, and publication of scores from the summer competition circuit. In recent years, however, online drum corps fans have also spawned an emerging realm of "fantasy drum corps," in which dozens of fictitious drum and bugle corps compete in imaginary online competitions. Drawing on cannibalized scores from the regular season, virtual corps directors construct their units literally from the pieces of actual corps, selecting particular drum lines, horn lines, and visual effects to determine scoring in the online competitions. Unlike similar fantasy sports leagues, fantasy drum corps has generated a creative world of fictitious competitors, each with their own web page, show concept, uniform, musical repertoire, and organizational history. The material on these sites is a mixture of appropriated images from actual corps' webpages, names and information lampooning known figures and actual corps, and newly-created concepts and repertoire. These sites recall Jean Baudrillard's assertion of the hyperreal; the circulation and recycling of (real) drum corps images disintegrate into self-referential details and constant reproduction. I will explore the multiple strategies virtual corps players utilize to both simulate and stimulate the actual drum and bugle corps community, challenging corps traditions with creative innovations while evoking nostalgia for the "real thing"--drum corps and community--through appropriations of cherished symbols. 3:00 6D2 In the Virtual Field: Ethnography and Internet Communities Eric Martin Usner, University of California, Riverside With increasing frequency, ethnomusicologists and ethnographers are using the Internet as an ethnographic source. More than simply a convenient means by which to gather information, the Internet provides a public space for the individuals to "meet" one another and assemble into social collectivities. In many cases, these associations of persons (listservs, chatrooms, etc.) With similar interests eventually come to constitute Internet or virtual communities for their members. My paper explores various models for thinking about the social relationships formed when people communicate via Internet, specifically addressing the question of how these relations create and constitute "community." I explore the evolution of the concept of community--from German sociologist Ferdinand Toennies through Benedict Anderson's theory of "imagined communities," to the recent discussions of Internet or "virtual" communities. After delineating a working model for community, I move to a discussion of its possible applications for understanding how and when the social relationships formed online may function within this construct. Drawing on my own fieldwork and participant observation in the online swing dance community, I offer ways we might conceive of "Internet communities", locating the collectivities of individuals with whom I have been consulting among the possible notions of Internet or "virtual" communities that I have posited. Through this paper, I hope to demonstrate that the associations of individuals formed online need to be conceived of as communities and to elucidate that the Internet--by providing a public space for the communing of peoples (per)forming and evolving individual and collective identities based on ongoing relationships--represents a compelling and uniquely challenging new site of ethnographic inquiry. 3:30 6D3 "Ghetto-Youth:" Cyberspace and Constructions of Community Surrounding Tricky Dale Chapman, University of California, Los Angeles Recently, the ideas of theorists such as benedict Anderson have become influential as scholars have tried to grapple with complex issues of identity formation and community in late capitalist society. The social alienation brought on by such forces as the emergence of the global marketplace have led many to seek new sources of community through the new social windows opened up by contemporary communications technology. In cyberspace, the technology of the mailing list offers new possibilities for identity construction, while introducing a strange new logic into the realm of interpersonal relations. One such mailing list, "Ghetto-Youth," is devoted to Tricky, one of the more influential artists in the genre of electronic music known as "trip-hop." Far from being the only topic of conversation, the idea of Tricky operates as a central node around which musicians and consumers produce discourses about aesthetics, commodification, and cultural politics. The nature of the discussions on "Ghetto-Youth" prompt several questions about music and community in the 1990s: to what degree do such commodities as the CD operate as sources of community? Do mailing lists enable a democratization of public discourses, or do they introduce new varieties of hegemony? I will draw upon materials submitted to the "Ghetto-Youth" list to allude to new possibilities for social formation presented by contemporary information technology. 4:00 6D4 Musical Life in Softcity: Ethnomusicologists and the Post-Human Other René T.A. Lysloff, University of California, Riverside In this paper I discuss the political economy of musical life on the Internet. Despite its relatively brief existence, the Internet has become a kind of complex city-state, what William J. Michael calls "Softcity." Analogous in many ways to a real world metropolis, Softcity is a vast electronic urban sprawl of personal, government, and corporate websites. A large portion of its population belongs to one or more of the diverse social groups accessible through the Internet. Each of these communities are in turn made up of individuals with uniquely human but mutable identities--that is, online personas that may or may not have similarities to the embodied persons behind them. Thus, Softcity is a place inhabited by technologically enhance, post-human identities. For ethnomusicolgy, online post-humanism has profound implications. The Internet is giving rise to new communities unconstrained by time and place, populated by personas rather than embodied persons, and structured according to new social configurations and hierarchies. It forces us to rethink about what it means to be human and what denies humanly made music. Drawing from examples in my own research, my paper will examine the dilemmas and possibilities of ethnographic research on the internet. Session 6E Performance of the Oral Tradition in Jewish Contexts 2:30-4:30 Friday, November 19 Chair: Mark Kligman, Hebrew Union College Discussant: Kay Kaufman Shelemay, Harvard University This panel explores performance of the oral tradition in present day Jewish life. Through focusing on performance in ritual contexts of various Jewish traditions we will highlight the process of communication in these events: communication of a text and the communication of other cultural and spiritual ideals. Many aspects inform performance based upon aesthetics and expectation of participants, the repertoire choices of the leader, and the knowledge and skill of all involved. The music of most Jewish traditions has not appeared in writing until the modern period, some Western and non-Western Jewish traditions are still transmitted orally. Performance of oral traditions remains an important part of Jewish life in a variety of contexts. In this panel the various presentations will focus on specific aspects of a Jewish tradition: Kligman will focus upon the Judeo-Arabic synthesis in the liturgical performance of Syrian Jews in Brooklyn Sabbath prayers; Summit will look at a Boston Orthodox synagogue and highlight the issue of authenticity in the public performance of readings of biblical texts; Cohen will look at the aesthetics of music and prayer as created and transmitted through Reform Jewish songleaders; and Jacobson will look at Yiddish choirs in New York as a performing community. These liturgical and non-liturgical events under exploration represent formal rituals (Kligman and Summit) or regularly performed occurrences (Cohen and Jacobson). Performing the oral tradition remains as a powerful force both inside and outside the synagogue in present day Jewish life. 2:30 6E1 Creating a Cultural and Religious Synthesis Through Music: The Sabbath Morning Prayers of Syrian Jews in Brooklyn Mark L.Kligman, Hebrew Union College Based primarily upon fieldwork carried out during 1991-1992 among Syrian Jews in Brooklyn, this paper will draw upon interviews and transcriptions, from earlier studies, in order to place modern Syrian musical and liturgical practice within an historical and cross cultural comparative framework. Through focusing on the music within a liturgical context, this study concludes that through wide-ranging music and textual interaction, this Jewish ritual is delivered in a manner infused with Arabic cultural aesthetics. Arabic melodies undergo a process of adaptation into Syrian liturgy through the paraliturgical song repertories in which Arabic texts are replaced with Hebrew words. Next, selected Arabic melodies, already ingrained in paraliturgical practice, their associated performance styles, and their extra-musical associations are incorporated into the liturgy. The Judeo-Arabic heritage reflected and perpetuated in the Syrian-Jewish liturgy goes beyond an adaptation of the surface features of musical style to constitute a deep sharing between what are often constituted as separate cultural worlds. This paper will utilize audio recorded examples that demonstrate this process of cultural and religious synthesis. 3:00 6E2 Constructing Authenticity through the Performance of Sacred Text Jeffrey A. Summit, Tufts University Every week, in Jewish congregations throughout the world, scriptural text is chanted in the synagogue in a ritual that dramatically re-enacts the revelation of the Law on Mount Sinai. The highly detailed and musically nuanced performance of Torah requires that the reader memorize both the pronunciation of unvocalized Hebrew text and the taamei hamikra (cantillation marks) that indicate the musical motif applied to each word of scripture. In many congregations, across denominational lines, busy lay congregants spend hours every week preparing to "read Torah" at Sabbath services. Many understand this proper performance of sacred text as a way to position themselves at the core of authentic religious experience. Increasingly, these oral traditions are not learned through face to face interaction with cantors, rabbis or other teachers but from cassette tapes or with the help of computer programs such as "Haftutor." I will examine why certain men and women see the performance of text as a key to authentic religious expression and how the application of new technology is changing the transmission and realization of these oral traditions. 3:30 6E3 A Different Way to Pray: Aesthetics of Music and Worship Among Reform Jewish Songleaders Judah Cohen, Harvard University The Reform Jewish songleader is a significant figure in the recent history of American Reform Jewish liturgy and music. Emerging in the 1950s and 1960s from the network of Reform Jewish summer camps in the United States, the songleader was originally a camper or counselor who took responsibility for organizing meaningful religious services with the campers. Today, about four decades later, songleaders have a national network and hierarchical system, an articulated approach to prayer, a method of pedagogy (including publications dependent upon oral transmission), an impressive repertoire, and a standard of sound based on an American folk revival aesthetic. These continue to be propagated in many religious settings around the country on a regular basis of all ages. In my presentation, I will examine this songleading aesthetic as it is expressed in the process of transmission. What values (musical, religious and otherwise) do songleaders pass among themselves? What values do they communicate to a congregation? I will attempt to address these issues through observations of songleader-led religious events (especially services and concerts), as well as discussions with several songleaders themselves. Moreover, I will suggest that these values reflect more than just a changing approach to prayer within certain Reform Jewish populations. Rather, I will try to show that this musical aesthetic is an impetus in itself for liturgical reflection and change within the larger world of Reform Jewish religious practice. 4:00 6E4 "As If We Were at the Barricades:" Singing Practices and Survival Strategies of a Yiddish Chorus in Manhattan Marion S. Jacobson, New York University How can a musical group survive when the values that have sustained it have eroded? This paper presents a case study of tradition in crisis mode, addressing the evolution of a politically-charged subculture into a musical affinity group/social club. Addressing issues surrounding identity, musical practice and expressive behavior in the Workmen's Circle Chorus of New York City, I demonstrate how the group grapples with questions about its furvival and its relevance to contemporary Jewish cultural practice. The focus of this paper is the Chorus's weekly rehearsals, where a core group of volunteer singers and their conductor stage multiple competing versions of musical aesthetics and competence. Poster Session: Aspects of Musical Transmission Among Cajun Accordion Players Christopher J. Della Pietra, Southeastern Louisiana University The subject addressed in this study was the acquisition of musical competence and repertoire by practicing Cajun accordion players. The problem examined in this study was to discern and describe the means and processes of transmission of the music performed by Cajun accordionists in dance bands. The purpose of this study was to add to the body of knowledge concerning the transmission of oral musical traditions by describing the learning process of current practitioners of Cajun dance music. Semi-structured interviews were selected for developing an understanding of the musicians' awareness of their learning processes, experiences, and self-knowledge (Finnegan, 1992; Kivale, 1996). The informants were selected as representative of authentic Cajun musicians by their association with L' Association de Musique Cadien Francaise de Louisiane, which is the governing body of the annual Le Cajun Festival and Music Awards, an event with music and dancing held in Lafayette, Louisiana. The accordion players' musical skills and sensibilities were learned through an intense process of experimentation and revision. 7:00-8:00 Video: Qoyllur Rit'i, Pilgrimage and Transformation: A Woman's Journey in an Andean Sacred Festival Holly Wissler, University of Idaho This 55-minute video documentary is about the sacred Andean festival of Perú known as Qoyllur Rit'i. In this annual pilgrimage, thousands of people trek to the 15,000 feet base of three sacred glaciers for ritual worship. About 100 costumed groups representative of Andean mythology express their devotion through song and dance in a three-day non-stop ceremony. Since the 18th century, Catholicism has been a strong aspect of the festival, making today's Qoyllur Rit'i a fascinating synthesis of Andean and Catholic traditions. This video has a three-fold narrative: An overview of Qoyllur Rit'i and the complexity of its meaning; the unique perspective of following one dance group, their year-long preparations, rehearsal process and rituals, and thirdly Holly Wissler's personal journey of being chosen to be mayordoma for this group, the challenges of fulfilling that role and a powerful transformation experienced as a direct result of performing repetitive rituals with her group. In the 1998 Qoyllur Rit'i celebration, Holly Wissler, a graduate student in music at the University of Idaho, performed the roles of mayordoma (sponsor) and accompanying musician with the Qapaq Qolla dance group from Ttio, in Cusco, Perú. It was the first time in the living history of this festival that an outsider to Peruvian culture performed these roles, making possible a unique documentary about Qoyllur Rit'i from an inside perspective. This video is a joint project by graduate students Holly Wissler, music, University of Idaho and Gabriela Martinez, film, San Francisco State University, with collaboration from cinematographers Flynn Donovan (Portsmouth, New Hampshire) and Númitor Hidalgo (Cusco, Perú). 7:00-8:00 CD-ROM Presentation and SEM A-V Committee Roundtable: Ethnographic Representation in the Era of Interactive Media Suzel Ana Reily, Queen's University of Belfast Although ethnomusicologists have often been quick to incorporate technological developments into their field research, serious consideration of what is represented, and how it is represented, is only now beginning to take place in the discipline, following recent debates on ethnographic representation in anthropology. Indeed, representational media continue to be used primarily following a "realist" paradigm, in which recordings, video clips, and photographs are drawn on mainly to illustrate descriptive ethnography. This is perhaps a consequence of the dominant mode employed in the dissemination of ethnomusicological knowledge: the published text, which is rarely accompanied by more than recorded musical examples on a CD, tucked into the back cover of the book. However, new technological developments-the CD-ROM and the World-Wide-Web in particular-present new alternatives for ethnographic representation, and call upon researchers to re-assess their uses of representational media in their work. These media do not only allow for incorporating sound and video clips into the text, their interactive potential significantly alters the relationship between "readers" and "the text." This presentation will contribute to the debate on ethnographic representation in ethnomusicology by discussing a project which involved transferring John Blacking's ethnographic representations onto a CD-ROM format. Although his fieldwork was guided by a realist paradigm, the representation of the material attempted to encourage an interactive "reading" of the ethnography, but it also aimed to preserve the authou's objectives in the publications. Saturday, November 20 Session 7A Music and Emotion I 8:30-10:30 Saturday, November 20 Chair: Margarita Mazo, Ohio State University 8:30 7A1 Musical Meaning, Emotional Experience, and the Social Significance of Vodou Ritual Singing Rebecca D. Sager, The University of Texas at Austin This paper develops a theoretical approach to musical meaning and emotional experience derived from my recent ethnography of Vodou ritual song in Haiti's Departement du Nord. ("Vodou" refers to a religious culture and a group of spirits, as well as the rituals honoring and beseeching those spirits.) In my study of Vodou singing, I use a syncretic analysis (synthesizing preliminary musical, linguistic and social analyses) to examine the active shaping and negotiation of song meanings during ritual performance. Upon this foundation, I explore the relationship of musical meanings to emotions. While I engage extant social theories, I highlight Haitian perceptions about the emotional content of Vodou singing in the ritual context. Vodou rituals are performed in the context of Haiti's hopelessly fractured society where persecution of Vodou is exacerbated by abject poverty, political and ideological conflicts. Ritual singing calls the spirits who address these grave social problems in their strategic play of sung and spoken discourse. In my presentation, I identify emotions that are publicly encoded in stereotyped ritual discourses--especially singing. In Vodou ritual, music can excite heightened experiences, agitating internal feelings or mental states. During such a musical experience, particular socially sanctioned emotions emerge and abide. Musical experiences trigger culturally defined yet personal emotions that lead to a transcendence of personal identity, i.e., possession by a Vodou spiri-t-the embodiment of a collective self, or the "other self" within (Blacking 1995:177). The possibility of social reordering and healing is contingent upon this subjective experience of spirit possession. 9:00 7A2 Song Texts and Emotional Transformation: Arabic Love-Lyrics as Tools of Ecstasy Ali Jihad Racy, University of California, Los Angeles This paper explores the relationship between sung poetry and the generation of feeling, in particular the ways in which lyrics contribute to the overall ecstatic experience associated with music. The topic of study is a vast repertoire of love song texts used in Arab music, especially within a traditional domain known collectively as tarab and directly correlated with ecstatic evocation. Addressing the historical, literary, and mystical backgrounds of the lyrics and discussing their primary position in Arab musical artistry, the study posits possible explanations of how these sung poems operated emotionally. For example, it is argued that their efficacy is intimately linked to their somewhat abstract and stereotypical amorous themes, images, and scenarios; the personal or self-referential mode in which they communicate; and the semi-formal, highly conventionalized literary idiom they embrace. Furthermore, the paper demonstrates that the lyrics transform poets, composers, performers, and listeners, on several interconnected levels; a) directly, through the use of emotionally loaded expressions, b) by creating a condusive sonic-semantic ethos, and c) through symbolic suggestion, largely in the form of induced amorous-ecstatic transpositions. At the same time, it is shown that a certain synergy exists between the poetry and the music. Intended to be performed musically, the lyrics realize their full ecstatic potentials fundamentally as "sung emotions". Referring to specific contributions from cultural anthropology and literary studies, the paper presents a theoretical format for studying an often ignored, but highly significant facet of music making. 9:30 7A3 Phantom Nostalgia and Recollecting (from) the Colonial Past in Madagascar Ron Emoff, The University of Texas at Austin Musical practices throughout Madagascar reflect ways in which Malagasy people have cultivated a fondness for materials and expressive forms connected to the French colonial era. Such musical preferences sometimes also intone feelings of displacement or longing arising from the inequities of colonial and post-colonial encounter. Edith Piaf and early jazz for instance are quite popular with some specific Malagasy people, who lament nonetheless that their lives have never been referentially in-synch with the worlds of experience that initially gave sentimental efficacy outside of Madagascar to these musics. What I'm calling phantom nostalgia--a desire to be or appear to be Other by striving to assume a distanced, other sentimentality-arises. A nostalgia-like fondness for Piaf though can still work in a strategy of social and political maneuvering, for instance as a display of class distinction. On the other hand, in tromba spirit possession ceremony in which music plays a vital role, Malagasy do become powerful Others, by taking into the body royal ancestral spirits or even the spirits of vazaha (white outsiders). In this paper I will discuss varied ways in which Malagasy people, who maintain a strong belief in the powers inherent in sound, have selected fragments from often disparate pasts to construct meaningful, feelingful wholes in the present. Sometimes these sentimental appropriations have created disjunctures, sometimes they have filled them in. I will also connect local circumstances in Madagascar to a more expansive theory of how certain musics attain affective potency in contested-over locales. Session 7B Contest-ing Tradition: Cross-Cultural Studies of Musical Competition 8:30-10:30 Saturday, November 20 Chair: Shannon Dudley, University of Washington Discussant: Frank Gunderson This panel will explore issues of musical competition in Trinidad carnival, Sundanese wayang, barbershop quartets, and Native American performance events. Many, if not most ethnomusicologists work in areas where formal or informal competition is an important part of music-making, and yet there are few theoretical studies of competition to guide us. How or why might we distinguish competitive considerations from the many other contingencies of musical performance? What social and historic factors contribute to making music a focal point of competition (or not) in a given community? How are lines drawn to distinguish informal and formal competition? Whose interest do organized competitions serve and how do they function to control, to preserve, or to promote musical values and identities? How do competitions affect the development of musical traditions and communities? Scholars of many different musics will recognize the importance of at least some of these questions to their own work, and could profit from a focused, cross-cultural exploration of music and competition. 8:30 7B1 Creativity and Control in Trinidad Carnival Competitions Shannon Dudley, University of Washington This paper analyzes how organized competitions during Trinidad carnival have been used to control aesthetic expression and public behavior, and how these attempts at control are balanced by the creative impulses of participants. Carnival has been an occasion for conflict between different social groups in Trinidad at least since Emancipation in 1838, and establishment concerns about carnival's disruptive potential are reflected in a series of British colonial laws and police actions in the second half of the 19th century. From the turn of the century onwards, the battle for social control has also been waged on a more symbolic and aesthetic field in masquerade, calypso, and steelband competitions organized by middle class sponsors and government agencies. These art forms were already guided, however, by conventions of competition which had developed in the context of neighborhood rivalries and ritual (or actual) combat. These "informal" competitive conventions coexist with the "formal" criteria of adjudication and rewards in recent sponsored competitions. While today's competitions--like Calypso Monarch, Panorama (steelband), and Band of the Year (masquerade)--are rooted partly in colonial or nationalist cultural hegemony, they are also characterized by artistic creativity, festivity, and resistance to authority. Using examples from steelbands, especially, I illustrate significant musical developments that could not have been predicted from the competitions' official criteria, or from the intentions of their sponsors. 8:50 7B2 >From Here to Confraternity: Competition and Contest in American Barbershop Harmony Gage Averill, New York University The barbershop revival movement, spearheaded by SPEBSQSA (Society fo the Preservation and Encouragement of Barber Shop Quartet Singing in America, founded 1938), was one of a number of neo-Victorianist social movements in early Twentieth Century America emphasizing issues of character, small-town values, and male camaraderie in the face of a rapidly-evolving cultural landscape. Its initial growth was built around informal singing ("gangsings") and semi improvised close harmony (woodshedding), but an early "parade of quartets" in a Tulsa, OK Masons' Hall soon evolved into annual, national conventions featuring quartet and chorus competitions. Over the years the international conventions have come to serve as the "finals" of a vast, tiered competitive system involving local and regional contests as well. The adjudication criteria have exerted a powerful influence over the sound of barbershop harmony in the last sixty years, helping to preserve certain stylistic characteristics of turn-of-the-century close harmony singing while strikingly altering others. The role of competition in the barbershop revival movement has been a focal point of aesthetic discourse and a flashpoint for concerns over the direction of the organization. This paper examines the consequences of competition on both the musical sound and social organization of barbershop harmony. I argue that the inauguration of a competition system for SPEBSQSA was an organization-building strategy that mixed an ideology of fraternity and camaraderie with a system of ritualized adversarial relations to produce profound changes in barbershop performance and style. 9:10 7B3 Cultural Policy and Cultural Practice: The State (of) Sundanese Wayang Golek Contests in New Order Indonesia Andrew Weintraub, University of Pittsburgh In 1968, a few years after the bloody tragedy that ushered in Soeharto's New Order government, the state-sponsored Central Wayang Foundation of West Java held the first annual Sundancese wayang golek (rod-puppet theater) competition in West Java. Wayang was identified as a tool for social and political critique, and because of earlier associations with the PKI (Partai Komunis Indonesia, or Indonesian Communist Party), became a particularly important site for the New Order government to organize and regulate. Along with competitions, wayang associations, schools, publications, and seminars proliferated in the increasingly contested terrain of wayang performance in New Order Indonesia. By sponsoring competitions, New Order cultural apparatuses were able to register and license theater troupes as well as to observe and monitor their activities. Tetekon, the aesthetic elements of performance, were officially documented, codified, and classified as evaluative criteria in an effort to control the boundaries of musical and theatrical practice. In this paper, I analyze the ways in which tetekon came to take on particular meaning when enframed within competitions. Emphasis was placed on etiquette (etika), technique (tehnik), and the ability to "harmonize" (harmonisasi) with the demands of the contest, advancing a model of wayang that directly conflicted with the "popular," which tended to favor communication (komunikasi) and entertainment (hiburan). In effect, wayang competitions came to represent cultural contests over the meaning of the art form itself. By examining the role of tetekon, and their application as evaluative criteria in wayang competitions, the effects of official cultural apparatuses in relation to Sundanese wayang may be properly understood. 9:30 7B4 Changing Traditions in Post-Colonial Native American Musical Practices Maria Williams, University of Alaska, Fairbanks The paper analyzes the traditional roots of a contemporary music competition--the music/dance contests of the World Eskimo and Indian Olympics. Alaska Natives have a dual perspective: they prize an individual's accomplishments while at the same time expect that individual to maintain a group or community identity. Although concepts such as "showing off" exist in most Native American societies, they are balanced with a strong sense of personal reserve and humility. For example, contest dancing is a focal point of contemporary Powwows and although it is a time when an individual can "show off," it is bound by strict parameters. In Alaska the dance groups that participate in competition must also balance the contradiction of flaunting oneself while maintaining the ideal of group identity. The paper asks the following questions: How has the contemporary concept of competition changed or modified traditional dancing and music? Are the emerging changes indicative of post-colonial strategies of cultural survival? Has the idea of competition spread to other tribal gatherings in Alaska? Have Alaska Natives maintained their cultural ideals of personal humility in the setting of music contests, and if so, how have they achieved this? The paper attempts to elucidate the more complex dynamics that lie beneath the surface of the music/dance contests of the World Eskimo/Indian Olympics. Session7C Music and Nationalism 8:30-10:30 Saturday, November 20 Chair: Donna Buchanan, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign 8:30 7C1 "To Uplift National Integrity and Safeguard Cultural Heritage:" State Patronage of the Sixth Annual Music Competition of the Union of Myanmar (Burma) Gavin Douglas, University of Washington In the past few years the SPDC (State Peace and Development Council) government of The Union of Myanmar (Burma) has progressively increased the amount of funding and media attention given to some of the traditional musical arts of the country. Included in these efforts is the recent creation of an annual singing, dancing, composing and performing music competition. The sixth annual competition, held in October of 1998, was the largest of its kind thus far, stretching for two and a half weeks across four of Yangon's (Rangoon's) largest venues and offering multiple instrument and age-level categories. Through the lens of this competition efforts to encourage Burmese traditional music will be discussed in light of the national unity agendas of the present dictatorship. An examination of the state media coverage, the style of patronage and the changes introduced to the music via the boundaries of the contest itself will reveal how the tradition is being used as a political tool. The competition, it will be revealed, serves multiple yet contradictory ends in its designated role of "(U)plifting national prestige and integrity and preserving and safeguarding of cultural heritage and national character." 9:00 7C2 >From "the Other" to "the Self:" Western Music in Korea and Nationalist Intellectual Discourse Okon Hwang, Eastern Connecticut State/ Wesleyan Since Western music was introduced to Korea about one hundred years ago, Koreans have treated this imported cultural activity with respect, equating it with cultural sophistication and prestige. Western music has been embraced to a point that it dominates music curricula in public and private schools, while Korean students are heavily represented in most major music conservatories in Europe and the United States. However, examination of the presence of Western music in Korea in an academic manner did not become significant until the nationalist discourse advocated by a few music critics and social scientists started to form a major intellectual trend in the 1980s. This paper examines the discourse on Western music in Korea in relation to the overall nationalist debate. After briefly surveying the history of Western music in Korea, the paper will describe two factors which eventually brought it to prominence as one of the main subjects of inquiries: 1) the work of Lee Kang-sook (a music critic and educator) and 2) the discourse of the 1980s. It will then describe the impact of this development on the general musical world in Korea. The paper will conclude with the change of the direction that took place during the early 1990s and will attempt to theorize the internalization process that changed Koreans' perception of Western music from "the West as the Other" to "the West as the Self." 9:30 7C3 Baiao, Luiz Gonzaga, Lampiao, and Vargas: or the Music, the Musician, the Bandit, and the President Adriana Fernandes, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign This paper centers on the music of Luiz Gonzaga during the years 1948-1954. Gonzaga was a famous northeastern musician who joined the great Southern migration of the 1930s to Rio and Sao Paulo in search of the improved living conditions advertised by the federal government. Gonzaga popularized a music called Baiâo, which according to him, was a synthesis of rural styles. This music will be analyzed in relation to the political context of the period and the nationalism of President Vargas. The meanings of costuming used in Gonzaga's performance is also particular significant as an allusion to Lampiâo, a famous bandit of 1920s in the hinterlands of Northeastern Brazil. A key issue addressed in this paper is the apparent contradiction between a music that was patronized by a populist dictatorship marked by a strong censorship, which nevertheless allowed an explicit reference to a legendary outlaw. Approaching this problem through semiotics, I will show the intricacies of Vargas's political agenda, and how a music of rural origin was used to win political support of the large Northeastern poor population, both in the Northeast and especially in Southern Brazil. The signs used to captivate those people were the music, the instrumentation, the lyrics, and also the reference to an outlaw who was feared yet admired by poor northeasterns, and ultimately killed by the government that initially supported him. My goal is to solve this complex of controversies establishing links between a bandit and a president through Baiâo music and its leading musician. 10:00 7C4 The Ghana Dance Ensemble: Music, Dance and the Construction of Post-Colonial National Identity Leigh Creighton, University of California, Los Angeles Kwame Nkrumah had both a political and a cultural vision for Ghana when he pushed for national independence and later became the first Ghanaian Head of State. Politically, he believed that Ghanaians should control their own territory. Culturally, Nkrumah saw the need for Ghanaians to reassert their artistic talents in reaction to restrictive British colonial policies. The creative philosophy which he called "African Personality" involved the rehabilitation of cultural values and the inclusion of an African perspective in all areas of life, including nationhood (Cultural Policy in Ghana 1975: 9). The power of music and dance as tools for the revival, promotion and maintenance of this type of "African identity" cannot be underestimated. As national folkloric groups like the Ghana Dance Ensemble were created after independence, they represented the integral nature of music and dance in Ghana, and provided an entertaining presentation of Ghanaian culture for non-Ghanaians. Their staged concerts, in turn, served to construct a sense of national identity within Ghana, and to promote the nation internationally. Interestingly, this process of situating traditional music and dance in a concert setting inverted one goal of Nkrumah's "African Personality." An African perspective, or aesthetic, was reaffirmed through these performances, but those who designed the Ensemble also incorporated a strong Western aesthetic into its configuration and promoted this aesthetic within their staged performances of traditional music and dance. This paper will investigate the intricacies of these co-existing aesthetics to identify the nature of national identity in post colonial Ghana. Session 7D Issues in Indian Music 8:30-10:30 Saturday, November 20 Chair: Daniel Neuman, University of California, Los Angeles 8:30 7D1 Traditions in Transition: Sarod and Sitar Performance in the Early Twentieth Century David Trasoff, California State University, San Marcos Sarod and sitar, the two most important stringed instruments used in the performance of Hindustani classical music, have presented a more or less unified common performance practice in the last half of the twentieth century. The ordered presentation of alap and jor (exposition in free rhythm) followed by vilambit and drut gat (slow and fast compositions) transcends even the boundaries of gharana (lineage) as heard in the music of the best-known artists of this period: Ali Akbar Khan, Ravi Shankar, Vilayat Khan and Amjad Ali Khan. Examination of evidence drawn from recordings, conference proceedings and oral histories indicates that while there were significant common elements of playing style shared by these instruments, the performance practice of sitar and sarod differed in many significant respects. Oral history suggests that these two instruments substantially shared a common performance practice of stroke patterns (bol-s) and styles of compositions (gat-s). Analysis of recordings from the first decades of the twentieth century, however, shows that performers of sarod and sitar in fact took quite different approaches to these elements of performance. Further, the selection of ragas recorded, as well as those played for the national music conferences of the period, suggest that sitar and sarod presented different repertoires as well. The longer period of time during which the sitar became acculturated as an Indian classical instrument, and the close association of sitar performers with the core of the Hindustani tradition may well account for many of these distinctions. Sarod, by contrast, was a new instrument, played primarily by relative outsiders. In light of these significant differences the transformation of sarod performance and its rise to co-eminence with sitar as a classical instrument in the space of three decades is all the more remarkable. 9:00 7D2 Historical Evidence for Dhrupad as a Musical Genre at the Mughal Court Richard Widdess, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London A feature of the North Indian classical tradition of vocal music is its variety of styles or genres, including dhrupad, khyal and thumri. Each genre is differentiated from the others by a combination of factors, including the type of composition used, aspects of vocal style and voice production, and other aspects of performance practice. In addition, aesthetic and ideological differences can be observed. Each genre appears to have emerged at a different period of history, and in differing social, political and cultural contexts. We might reasonably hope that the processes by which these genres came into being would be illuminated by historical documentation. The paper will consider in this light evidence for dhrupad performance and transmission in 16-17th century documents from the courts of the Mughal emperors Akbar, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb. These sources reveal not only technical details of performance practice but also aesthetic and ideological concepts that are directly relevant to later musical history in North India; they shed light on the origins, development and incipient decline of dhrupad as a genre. Such evidence is also relevant to the re-evaluation or revival of dhrupad that is occurring in India today. 9:30 7D3 Vanquished Warriors Make Great Musicians Nazir Ali Jairazbhoy, University of California, Los Angeles A fascinating aspect of society in India is that it is divided into structural groups generally referred to as castes. What is not usually emphasized is that there are many different groups that occupy the same structural position, perhaps the most striking example of which are the many communities of bards/storytellers/musicians in India. Just in Western India and Pakistan, more than 50 such communities have been mentioned in the literature. Many of them are attached to particular families or communities and function in a jajmani feudal pattern as clients of their patrons. Interestingly, musician communities are, by tradition, always ranked at the bottom of the social hierarchy--sometimes even equivalent to untouchables. An examination of legends and historical sources shows that communities, especially those of the warrior class, khatriya, or kshatriya, after being subjugated, were driven to the bottom of the heirarchy and compelled to adopt the role of musician. This paper will present evidence to support the thesis that vanquished warrior communities have often been converted to musician communities by their conquerors, and that many of them have become excellent musicians. Session 7E Reflections on Ethnographic Method 8:30-10:30 Saturday, November 20 Chair: Dale Olsen, Florida State University 8:30 7E1 Which Side are you on? "Victim Art" and the Cultural Politics of the Art---Ethnography Continuum Heidi Feldman, University of California, Los Angeles When an artist integrates the voices and images of survivors into a performance, is the result art of victimization? In 1994, choreographer Bill T. Jones presented "Still/Here," an evening-length work involving dance, theater, live music, and video installation. Jones (who is HIV-positive) derived his choreographic inspiration and live video footage from "survivor workshops" he conducted with people fighting life-threatening conditions. According to Arlene Croce--The New Yorker's senior dance critic--"Still/Here" was "victim art," and thus unreviewable. Not only did Croce decide against reviewing the work, she refused to see it. Ironically, she wrote about it anyway, in a controversial New Yorker article, attacking Jones and his production and warning audiences to stay away. Croce's piece touched a nerve. Artists, presenters, writers, and scholars flooded The New Yorker with letters, both attacking and supporting a critic's right to castigate a performance that she had not seen. I argue that the "Still/Here standoff" is an example of the culture politics of mixing art and ethnography along an increasingly evident continuum. My paper examines this event from several perspectives: Croce's avoidance of "Still/Here" and her obsessive gaze at its creator; Jones as an ethnographic artist; and Croce's use of metaphors of infection. I conclude with examples of this art-ethnography continuum at work in recorded music linked to victimization and/or cultural survival (Steve Reich's "Different Trains," Deep Forest's "Sweet Lullaby," and Steve Feld's "Voices of the Rainforest"), where too much art--or too much ethnography--can also be a dangerous thing. 9:00 7E2 When You Know Something is Happening, But You Don't Know What it Is Edward Herbst, City University of New York This paper posits the questions, "what, where, and how," as a continuation of my reflexive study of indigenous Balinese performance theory/ phenomenology of performance, developed in "Voices in Bali" (Wesleyan U. Press 1997). The intention is to delve into certain essentials regarding approaches to ethnography and intercultural modes of communication. As we travel along local paths of feeling, perception, and expression, our own ways of integrating the ethnographic experience are shaped and articulated accordingly. A dialogic process leads through a forest of culturally-specific information and symbols, but also posits broad questions about the nature of form and time. Related elements to be considered are Balinese ways of processing time, from every-day calendrical, to the performative, to the cosmological. Time, that seemingly disembodied factor, both shapes and is creatively shaped by human activity. It can also be fought with and subdued by means of music, dance, puppetry and ritual. This paper also delves into Balinese approaches to "where and how something is happening," through kinesthetic transmission of musical knowledge, especially pertaining to vocal technique and the "movement of sound through the body." 9:30 7E3 Writing Down and Writing Up: The Possibilities of On-Site Ethnography Andrew Killick, Florida State University Despite an extensive re-thinking of the practices of fieldwork in both ethnomusicology and anthropology in recent years, it remains an almost unquestioned assumption that finished ethnographic writing will be produced away from the field. While the importance of on-site "fieldnotes" has been recognized in a broadening of the concept to include impressions, emotions, and reflections as well as more narrowly "scientific" kinds of data, these notes are still largely conceived as "writing down" what one is discovering, which will be "written up" for presentation to one's scholarly peers only after leaving the site of research. My own experience, however, calls this assumption into question in that both my master's thesis and doctoral dissertation were written without leaving the site of my research (Seoul, Korea) and only defended and revised after returning to my degree-granting institutions. In the light of this experience, I wish to examine some of the implications and possibilities of an option that seems rarely to have been considered. In particular, I will stress how modern communications technologies, available in many field sites today, facilitate both continual revision of writing (without a radical disjuncture between "down" and "up" phases) and instant long-distance communication with colleagues and advisors; how continued access to informants while writing facilitates checking of one's findings and especially of the musical skills one has learned, as well as "dialogic editing"; and how such a practice, though obviously not suitable for every fieldwork situation, might offer one fruitful response to the postcolonial critique of ethnography. 10:00 7E4 Beyond the Six O'clock News: In Search of Palestinian Music and Dance Jennifer Ladkani, Florida State University Images of a Palestinian persona, ranging from terrorist to peacemaker, have occupied a constant presence in international media for over fifty years. Despite this fact, Palestinian culture has remained paradoxically enigmatic. Perhaps it has been beyond the reach of scholars who focus instead on Palestine as merely one half of a political conflict. Perhaps a distinct Palestinian music and dance has slowly emerged only within these fifty years. The urgency of such a study is guided by the notion that many Palestinians view the arts as their proof of existence (past), their only voice to the outside (present), and their key to eventual independence (future). This paper, based on my time as a 1998-99 Fulbright Scholar, discusses the music and dance activities in Ramallah (West Bank) and Amman, Jordan as a focal point for this preliminary step inside the world of the Palestinian people. Ramallah, considered part of the "homeland" and known as the cultural capital of Palestine, has become the breeding grounds for unique artistic combinations and struggles between new and old, religious and secular, Palestinian and Israeli. This is in contrast to the Palestinian exile communities like Amman, where, in the wake of a forced Palestinian diaspora, professional and amateur troupes have developed as the primary carriers of music and dance traditions and where accompanying ideologies are strikingly different. The material presented reflects the way my Palestinian-American heritage colored my experiences during my attempt to understand the contemporary nature, functions, politics, and aesthetics of Palestinian music and dance. Session 7F The Study of Musical Instruments 8:30-10:30 Saturday, November 20 Chair: Matthew Allen, University of Oklahoma 8:30 7F1 "Them, Those, and Us:" Mapping the Variety of Cultural Traditions of Mizmar (Folk Oboe) Performance in Present-Day Egypt Scott L. Marcus, University of California, Santa Barbara The world of mizmar (folk oboe) performance in Egypt has been little studied. Brief encyclopedia entries give little or no attention to mizmar music cultures, focusing instead on the instrument's physical structure and the variety of names used for the instrument. Folklorists in Egypt have similarly not addressed the issue of cultural traditions, choosing to see any variations in practice as being without significance. "There is only one mizmar tradition in Egypt," one of Egypt's most prominent folklorists commented. "Instruments of different sizes exist, but everyone performs one and the same tradition." During six months of research in 1998, I had the opportunity to research the world of Egyptian mizmar performance. While there are fundamental similarities among all existing mizmar traditions in Egypt, most striking is the performers' own understanding that the country contains three distinct and separate traditions. "There are 'them,' 'those over there,' and then there's 'us.'" My paper seeks to establish the geographical, cultural, and musical boundaries of these three distinct traditions. In addition to playing instruments of different shapes and sizes, the traditions differ in terms of repertoire and, perhaps, most importantly, in terms of many aspects of identity. My paper has relevance for students of double reed traditions throughout the Middle East, South Asia, and East Asia for shedding light on an instrument family that seems to have had shared roots in a distant past. Evidence of external origins (both "gypsy" and "Turkish") of Egypt's mizmar traditions speaks to these shared roots. 9:00 7F2 Voicing/Ventriloquizing: The Violin in South India Amanda Weidman, Columbia University Although the golden age of India is usually placed in Orientalist accounts in the pre- colonial era, the golden age of Karnatic music is conventionally placed at the peak of colonialism, the early to mid-nineteenth century. While the composers of this golden age were at work, a new instrument was changing the face of Karnatic music: the European violin. This paper follows the career of the violin from its arrival in South India (circa 1800) to the present. Tracing the position of the violin in the twin discourses of modernization and authenticity so foundational to the twentieth century revival of Karnatic music as `classical,' it shows how attitudes toward the violin in South India have changed and how notions of the voice have been fundamentally altered as a result. The adoption of the violin into Karnatic music altered the status of the voice and thus the order of composing; in the early twentieth century the violin shed its old `fiddle' image for a new classicized image when it became the necessary accompaniment to the voice. The violin's uncanny ability to be both Western and Indian at the same time, and to reproduce the voice, made it quintessentially modern; it was perceived, unlike the too-traditional veena or the `mechanical' harmonium, as the ideal instrument for bringing Karnatic music into the modern age. A consideration of changing violin styles in the twentieth century and the role of the violin in experimental music shows how the violin keeps rearticulating Karnatic music's relationship to the West. 9:30 7F3 In Search of the Indian guitar Martin Clayton, Open University This paper is based on a study of the guitar, its players and its repertoire in India, and discusses issues relating to identity and globalization in music. Although the guitar has been known in India for some considerable time, particularly in areas such as the former Portuguese colony of Goa, it has experienced a huge increase in popularity since the 1940s. Crazes for the Hawaiian, guitar and electric guitars have seen the instrument's several variants play an increasingly important role in Indian film and popular music, in Western-style-rock and jazz and even in Indian classical music. Although one of the most popular instruments in the subcontinent (second only perhaps to Western-style keyboards, electronic and hand-pumped), the guitar continues to be associated with the West, and in particular with the small (2.3%) Christian community, (comprising mainly Anglo-Indians, Goans and inhabitants of the North-Eastern states), from which most professional players are drawn. This paper will look at the place of the guitar in Indian culture, at the ways in which it is not only seen as something Western and modern (and therefore alien and potentially threatening), but also appropriated by Indian musicians who have developed ways of playing ragas on it (with or without modification to the instrument itself). Session 8A Music and Emotion II 11:00-1:00 Saturday November 20 Chair: Jane Sugarman, State University of New York, Stony Brook 11:00 8A1 A Socio-Emotional Ontology of Musical Symbolism Elizabeth Tolbert, John Hopkins University What is the nature of musical symbolism? Building on the Peircean insight that symbolic processes are hierarchical, I propose that musical symbols, symbols in the Peircean sense of conventional, arbitrary signs, depend on lower order signs, i.e., on prior icons and indices, for their emotional effects. However, in a break with a traditional Peircean approach, I further suggest that these so-called lower order signs are in fact only possible within the realm of the fully symbolic, a sphere that, contra a strict interpretation of Peirce, includes both linguistic and non-linguistic symbols. By examining the indexical/symbolic threshold in music and language from evolutionary and developmental perspectives, I submit that both musical and linguistic symbols are derived from culturally specific, non-linguistic, spatio-temporal concepts, concepts that in turn structure other cultural domains. These foundational spatio-temporal concepts are rooted in iconic and indexical processes, and are implicated in the earliest experiences of self and other. These, symbols of any kind, including musical symbols, are inherently social, are constructed intersubjectively using analogical processes, are iconic and indexical to bodily experience, and expressed symbolically in reference to culturally specific processes of subjectivity. Such an approach suggests a socio-emotional ontology of musical symbolism, one that retains audible traces of its iconic and indexical roots. 11:30 8A2 Dimensions of feeling and emotion in ritual music of the Kotas, a south Indian tribe Richard Wolf, Harvard University In this paper I explore the emotional textures of two kinds of ceremonies, those for divinity and those for the dead, performed by the Kotas, a small tribe in the Nilgiri hills of south India. I consider how Kotas configure relationships between emotion, music, and ritual, and how these configurations fit into Kota ritual categories of "god" (devr) and "death" (tav), categories which also encompass the most important types of Kota vocal and instrumental music. I ponder the culture of emotion by examining two relatively stable systems: 1) The system of Kota terminology for feeling and emotion, particularly as it applies to music, divinity, and death; and 2) the system of formal associations between ritual/musical subcategories and emotions. Then, to relate these systematic frameworks to issues "on the ground," I try to explicate the discrete, sometimes idiosyncratic ways in which some individuals conceptualize and represent connections between musical sound and feeling. The emphasis in this paper, therefore, is on the relationship between shared formal structures and the ways people make sense of these structures. I also suggest possible methodological strategies for studying music and the emotions in ritual settings generally, drawing briefly on fieldwork experiences from other parts of south Asia. I conducted field research for the Kota data from 1990 to 1992 when I lived in the Kota village of Kolmel, and for approximately four months during the years 1997 and 1999. 12:00 8A3 Nashe (Ours): A Case Study of Identity, Emotions, Music, and Dance among Ukrainian- Americans Daria Lassowsky Nebesh, Independent Societies condition emotional and physical responses through cultural training. Through music and dance an emotion may stimulate a physical response or an affect. In some societies, certain songs and dances elicit laughter or tears that may be partnered with a cultural meaning, such as weeping for a deceased relative or one's homeland. Songs and dances may evoke temporary emotional reactions and may instill more lasting feelings. This paper will discuss lasting emotions and those emotions associated with identity, such as a sense of belonging and ownership, and how they influence the activities of Cheremosh, a Ukrainian-American dance and music group. In the group, an effort is made to condition an emotional response to music and dance in order to evoke a sense of identity. The members of the group are aware that they are American, yet they feel Ukrainian. The aesthetics of the music, dance, and material art produced by the groups are determined by emotional responses rather than by rational thought. Often the members of Chreremosh refer to the sense of "nashe" (ours) when discussing or explaining why something is danced or played a certain way. When something feels Ukrainian to them, then it is correct, and vice versa. Some of the older members can outline rules of aesthetics in detail, but the majority of the members learn to identify traditional elements through emotional responses, specifically the sense of nashe. Also, I have observed a conflict between the artistic quality versus the emotional response in establishing the performance requirements. This paper will discuss this sense of nashe, the emotions associated with this sense, and how it all influences the musical and dance elements in the Cheremosh performing ensemble. Session 8B Music Theory and Social Meaning 11:00-1:00 Saturday, November 20 Chair: Edward O. Henry, San Diego State University 11:00 8B1 Spiralling Chinese Cyclic Theory and Modal Jazz Practice Across Millenia; The 60-Tone Case of John Coltrane (1926-67) and Ching Fang (78-37 B. C.) Hafez Modirzadeh, San Francisco State University Western musicological perspectives towards the pedagogy and analysis of jazz styles have continued to fall short of finding relevant continuity with all of John Coltrane's modal developments from his mid-periods (1958-64). At best, the Greek heptatonic system, used well enough for an earlier modal period with Miles Davis, cannot apply to consequent pentatonic-cyclic practices thereafter. A recent discovery with Coltrane's 1960 hand-drawn geometric diagram (the only one of its kind, published without explanation by Yusef Lateef) appears to relate directly to Ching Fang's 60-tone spiral of the early Han dynasty (3rd century B.C-A.D.). In all, it is proposed here that, for the first time, we have plausible clues indicating the late tenor saxophonist's knowledge of and execute a truly original "Afro-Asian" approach to improvisation, but also sensibly places his previously perceived excursions in tonal substitution (i.e. "Giant Steps") as actually part of an uninterrupted modal transition between linear-heptatonic and non-linear (or cyclic) constructs. Given this contention, that for Fang and Coltrane, such musical connections may indeed transcend all expected contexts of culture, time and space, then more serious non-western considerations could forward the study of historical jazz practices in particular. This, as well as interrelating the aural, improvised, and emotive powers of musical theories in general. 11:30 8B2 The Role of the Baron Rodolphe D'Erlanger in Shaping Modern Tunisian Music Theory Ruth Davis, Cambridge University In Tunisia today, the standard curriculum adopted by high schools and music conservatories includes theoretical studies of the Tunisian melodic modes (maqamat) and rhythmic-metric genres (iqa'at) presented in western staff notation. The use of both notation and didactic theory in the indigenous Arab repertory derives ultimately from the efforts of the European patron and scholar, the baron Rodolphe d'Erlanger. Resident in Tunisia since 1911, d'Erlanger's alleged mission was to rescue Tunisian music from the corrupting influences of modernisation and westernisation, and from the ignorance of its musicians, whom d'Erlanger perceived to be handicapped by their lack of a verbalised music theory. Through the 1920s until his death in 1932, d'Eranger transformed his Moorish palace in Sidi Bou Said into a center of musical performance and scholarship featuring leading Tunisian musicians and scholars; they were joined in 1931 by the Syrian Shanykh 'Ali al-Darwish, who imported theoretical models developed in Cairo and Istanbul. d'Erlanger's efforts culminated in his pioneering six-volume study La Musique Arabe, and in his seminal reports on the maqamar and iqa'at of contemporary Arab music, presented to the 1932 Cairo Congress. This paper will examine d'Erlanger's unique contribution to the creation of a modern Tunisian music theory. Adapted and elaborated by subsequent generations of Tunisian music scholars, d'Erlanger's analytical methods provided the foundation for the theoretical concepts that are now commonly perceived to underlie Tunisian art and popular musical repertories. 12:00 8B3 Reaching Back and Reaching Out: the Persian Radif since 1978 Bruno Nettl, University of Illinois Taking an essentially historical approach, this paper explores and interprets the role of the radif of Persian music--the basis for improvisation and composition--since about 1978. It is based on fieldwork in Iran before 1978, on publications emanating since that time in Iran, and on recent fieldwork in the USA. Loosely codified before 1900 by a group of musicians including Mirza Abdollah, by 1960s the Radif was being maintained in separate versions by many leading musicians, suggesting a process of dispersion. Contrary developments appear to have set in since the Revolution, including: 1) the conceptual restandardization of the radif and its representation as the work of Mirza Abdollah, transmitted by Nour-Ali Boroumand, a major figure in the preservation of Persian music in the period 1965-1978; 2) the unprecedented publication in Iran of several printed or recorded versions of the Radif, but the absence of recorded improvisations; 3) the use of the concept of the Radif as generative force for a variety of compositions and improvisations of traditional, experimental, western-derived, and popular music in the Iranian diaspora. The recent history of Persian music is characterized by the Radif's growing significance and centrality inside and outside Iran. With recorded illustrations, the paper suggests that the Radif, as an identifiable musical work, became an icon of national unity and centralized control in Iran, and indexical of the Persian character of the musical culture of the Iranian diaspora. 12:30 8B4 Analogy and the Genesis of Abstract Musical Concepts Marc Perlman, Brown University How do abstract musical ideas develop? How do people come to articulate them? Recent research has noted the role of metaphor (cross-domain mappings) in music theory, i.e. the use of non-musical phenomena (waterfalls, organic growth, etc.) to express abstract musical concepts. But such concepts are also produced by analogy (intra-domain mappings), the projection of concrete musical practices into an abstract domain. I propose musical equivalents to the two kinds of abstraction recognized by Roy D'Andrade (content-based abstraction versus abstraction by recoding). I illustrate various types of musical abstraction with examples drawn from several cultures: Central Javanese theories of "implicit melody," Schenker's Urlinie, V. N. Bhatkhande's reworking of the concept of "that," Berlioz's concept of "rhythmic consonance," and the thoughts of an Irish fiddler on how to arrange a concert program of traditional dance tunes. Session 8C Music in Latin America 11:00-1:00 Saturday, November 20 Chair: Larry Crook, University of Florida, Gainesville 11:00 8C1 The Bandit, the Hero, and the Narco: Subcul and the Narco: Subcultural Values, Commercialism, and Popular Mexican Music Helena Simonett, University of Zurich This paper focuses on a particular repertory of Mexican popular music, the so-called narcomusica and the narcocorridos. (Narco is short for drug dealer: narcocorridos are ballads that narrate episodes from the adventurous life of the drug dealers.) Since the 1970s, popular music from the northwestern part of Mexico, especially from the State of Sinaloa, has become more and more associated with the subculture of its drug dealers. Apart from the narcos' economic power, there are several other factors that helped this subculture become a very strong force in Mexican society (as well as in Mexican/Mexican American communities in the United States). Images of the Sinaloan character that have been perpetuated in folklore and songs facilitated the acceptance of certain subcultural values among a large public, even though the original values, shaped during the Mexican Revolution (1910), were severely distorted. The modern hero, the drug dealer, embodies the virtues of the bandido, the criminal or outlaw, widely celebrated in Mexican popular culture, music and movies. This paper illuminates the complex ways in which drug cultivation, trafficking, and violence have become accepted among a large population (in Mexico and in the United States) by considering the cultural predicament, both present and past. It will be shown how an openly celebrated bandido cult unites and fuses folklore with delinquency and violence and how violence in relation to drug trafficking is celebrated and commercialized in popular music. 11:30 8C2 "The disc is not the Avenue:" Live and Studio Aesthetics in Samba Recording Frederick Moehn, New York University Rio de Janeiro's samba schools are the central attraction in the city's famous carnival celebrations. By the time the schools parade through the sambadromo at carnival, the majority of the spectators are able to sing along with the sambas, having heard them for months in heavy radio rotation, and many will have bought the compilation CD of sambas from the fourteen "grupo especial" schools. I observed the making of this CD during three weeks in October 1998 in the recording studio, Companhia dos Técnicos (Company of technicians), and I witnessed the negotiations between producers and samba school directors over recording aesthetics. The foremost conflict arose from the desire of the producers to "clean" ("limpar") the sambas of what they regarded as excessive shouting and unnecessary drum breaks characteristic of carnival processions. As the producers often said to the directors of the samba schools, "The disc is not the avenue." In this paper I examine the contrasting views of what recorded carnival samba should sound like and analyze the effects that the changes in recorded versions of sambas has had on live carnival performances. I connect this material to a larger debate over the relationship of recorded to live performance and over the degree to which one functions as "advertisement" for the other. 12:00 8C3 Brazilian Samba as a Practice and as a Hierarchic Structure; A Synchronic Approach Luiz Fernando Lima, University of Helsinki This paper concerns Brazilian samba, aiming at a critical interpretation of this practice as a synchronic system. The main corpus focused is the partido alto tradition from Rio de Janeiro. The basic assumption is that the samba is part of a structure of relationships which involves codes of different quality, such as sounds, social roles, situational circumstances, individual previous life experiences and body gestures. A comparison between performances in different settings is offered: a communal gathering a stage show a TV presentation, and a recording played in a middle-class party. The claim is that in each environment a specific hierarchic structural arrangement is more pertinent than others, thus some musical codes are more highlighted. The ethnographic data is combined with a holistic definition of the "samba world" to set up meaningful frames over which the musical analyses are based. Another achievement is a connection between a social structure built upon personal relationships and a system of different musical layers interacting simultaneously. Accordingly, the theoretical and methodological background combines insights from ethnomusicology and popular music studies with musical semiotics to propose a heterodox approach to this contemporary practice. Session 8D Native American Music, Intertribalism, and Technology 11:00-1:00 Saturday November 20 Chair: Victoria Lindsay Levine, Colorado College 11:00 8D1 "That Our Voices May Be Heard": Repatriation and Contemporary Representation of Frances Densmore's Teton Sioux Collection, 1911-14 Pauline Tuttle, University of Washington Frances Densmore's Teton Sioux collection, recorded on Standing Rock Reservation between 1911 and 1914, is the most comprehensive documentation of Lakota song to date. In this paper I explore the musical legacy of Densmore's Teton Sioux work and its perceived significance to contemporary Lakota musicians. I begin by tracing the repatriation and revitalization process initiated in 1982 by Hunkpapa Lakota singer, flute player, and dancer, Tokeya Inajin (Kevin Locke). Taking an ethnohistorical approach, I also discuss the impact of Densmore's field methodology on decisions which are being made today about the revitalization, commercial representation, and community use of the Densmore collection. When Tokeya Inajin's great-grandfather, Itun'kasan-lu'ta (Red Weasel), recorded his Sun Dance songs for Densmore, his hope was that "our voices may be heard by future generations." Today, renditions of many of the songs Densmore recorded can be heard in Standing Rock Nation at school functions, community celebrations, ceremonial activities, around the powwow drum, on KLND radio station, and on commercial recordings. In these various performative contexts, I ask: whose voices are being heard and how are they being interpreted and represented? My primary focus throughout the paper is on Tokeya Inajin's incorporation of this material into his performance practice, educational efforts, and plans for future projects. Data is drawn from archival sources and ongoing field work which I began in the winter of 1997. The paper is complemented by audio and visual examples illustrating Tokeya Inajin's musical and conceptual reinterpretation of selected songs from Densmore's field collection. 11:30 8D2 Singing for Garfish: Music and Woodland Intertribalism in Oklahoma Victoria Lindsay Levine, Colorado College; Jason Baird Jackson, Gilcrease Museum The dance songs performed as part of seasonal ceremonies are an integral aspect of contemporary life among Woodland Indians of eastern Oklahoma. The members of each ceremonial ground perform communal rituals throughout the summer at their own stomp dances grounds, in addition to sending out delegations to visit other stomp grounds on every available weekend. Thus Woodland peoples participate in communal rituals held at Shawnee, Yuchi, Creek, Cherokee, Seminole, and Delaware grounds located throughout eastern Oklahoma. As a result of this pattern of social and ritual interaction, certain dance songs exist in the repertories of several Woodland communities, but in each case, the song has been modified to conform to local musical and aesthetic values. Using the Garfish Dance song as a case study, this paper explores the role of music in maintaining a state of dynamic equilibrium between tribalism and intertribalism among Woodland peoples in Oklahoma. The paper has been co-authored by an ethnomusicologist and an anthropologist, who are currently involved in collaborative archival research and fieldwork in several Woodland communities. 12:30 8D4 Recording Culture: Aesthetics and Social Power in a Native American Recording Studio Christopher Scales, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign This paper examines the social and creative roles played by Sunshine Records, an independent recording studio and record label in Winnipeg, Manitoba, in the Manitoban Native community. I examine the aesthetic and processual potentials and limits offered by the recording studio environment in general, and more specifically, a studio self-consciously dedicated to the production and promotion of a wide variety of First Nations musics. The success and longevity of Sunshine Records is significant for two reasons. First, Sunshine Records has served as one of the few stable musical institution in Winnipeg dedicated to servicing the Native sector of the population and has thus become a one of the few places where Native musicians are welcomed and valued as artists and performers. It has become a nexus of urban Native musical activity where new Native musical styles are envisioned, constructed and distributed. Thus, Sunshine Records has served as a resource for the construction and presentation of musically encoded Native identity for both Natives and non-Natives in Winnipeg, Manitoba and across Canada. The music produced at Sunshine serves to actively create possible social spaces and alternate subjectivities for First Nations peoples both in their local communities and nationally. Second, in the often economically volatile world of the music industry, where independent labels come in and out of existence with alarming frequency, Sunshine Records has remained a relatively stable corporate entity. Eschewing the pursuit of a distribution deal with one of the six major corporate labels, Sunshine has remained committed to serving local Native communities in Winnipeg and in northern Manitoba. Session 8E Talking About Timbre 11:00-1:00 Saturday November 20 Chair: Thomas Solomon, University of Minnesota Discussant: Steven Feld, New York University Our title for this panel is meant to evoke both ethnomusicological discourse about timbre and the discourses of timbre we have observed and documented ethnographically. Moving beyond the commonplace critique of the lack of attention given to timbre in western musicological discourse, we argue that timbre can and should be systematically investigated through qualitative and quantitative methods. Producers and consumers of music often have highly developed vocabularies for talking about specific timbral qualities; attention to the patterning of metaphor in this talk can tell us how discourses of timbre are sites for negotiating power-laden meanings and embodying these meanings in metalanguage. A phenomenological approach to timbre can also make use of computer-aided sound analysis that allows the researcher to quantify acoustic correlates of discourse on timbre. The papers in the panel collectively argue that discourses of timbre are deeply felt ways of evoking how sound qualities embody felt meanings/meant feelings. 11:00 8E1 Talking About Timbre Thomas Solomon, University of Minnesota It has become a commonplace in ethnomusicology to critique approaches that define musical sound purely in terms of rhythm and melody. Despite this recurring criticism, there has not been a systematic attempt to define a theory of timbre or implement methods for investigating it. A few researchers have made significant contributions to a cross-cultural approach to timbre; Alan Lomax's set of cantometric parameters for grading vocal qualities is one important example. But such broadly based comparative methods do not give us resources for constructing a phenomenology of timbre--a way of understanding how timbres work as meaning-bearing sign vehicles. While western musicological discourse may lack a metalanguage for timbre, ethnographic research has shown that music producers and consumers often have highly developed ways of talking about timbre. A way to get hard data about timbre is to pay attention to these discourses--how people talk about why Hank Williams' voice is so evocative, how electric guitarists talk about how they choose which setting on which effects pedal to use for a particular song. Ideas about timbre are often expressed through metaphors that evoke experiences of synesthesia; sound qualities are evaluated and commented on in the language of color, texture, taste. Rather than assume that such talk is simply a vague, random attempt to quantify the unquantifiable, the challenge to the ethnographer is to explore the patterning of meaning in the metaphors used to talk about timbre, and understand how these patterns are feelingfully linked to specific acoustical correlates. 11:20 8E2 Discourse on Timbre among Temple Drummers in Kerala, India Rolf Groesbeck, University of Arkansas, Little Rock Scholarly considerations of musical sound in India often center around such topics as melody type, meter, and improvisation, roughly following the models of Indic musicology. It is unfortunate that timbre often receives short shrift in this literature, since consideration of musicians' discourse about timbre may reveal ways in which musicians embrace or contest larger values. Specifically, in this paper I will discuss Kerala temple drummers' use of timbral terms such as "sweetness" (madhuram), "music" (sangitam), and "weight" (kanam), arguing that they are often employed for the purposes of imagining a shared nostalgic image or negotiating constructions of authenticity. For instance, one performer, angered by another more eccentric performer's popularity, attacked the tone quality of a specific drumstroke played by the latter, accusing it of lacking "music;" he thus emphasized the latter's putative separation from a shared image of tradition and by implication authenticated his own less popular style. Another performer, eager to cement his reputation among older connoisseurs, reminisced about a time in which the "sweetness" of one's timbre, rather than virtuosity or improvisatory skill, supposedly determined a drummer's reputation. These and other examples indicate that study of local discourse on this issue is helpful in understanding how musicians negotiate concepts of legitimacy and in doing so compete for limited performance opportunities. I conducted the field research for this paper in Kerala mostly in 1988-90, during which time I took centa drumming lessons; my own demonstrations of the timbres under consideration will accompany my presentation. 11:40 8E3 Vocal Articulation in Country Music: a Micro-analysis Aaron Fox, Columbia University Country music singing style is often described in impressionistic terms which refer to the embodiment and stylization of particular affects. While the significance of stylized vocal affect is widely recognized among the genre's fans and critics, the precise techniques through which this stylization is achieved by singers have never been formally described. In fact, the language used to describe country music singing typically naturalizes the projection of affect, or at best collapses the refined and subtle range of highly stylized vocal markers of embodied affect into the generic categories of "crying" or "nasality." In this paper, I examine some very precisely specified articulatory distinctions which are characteristic of the singing style of three working-class Texas country singers from different generations. Using computer-generated spectrograms, I will discuss the dynamic shaping of lines of text, movements between spoken and sung articulations, pharyngealization, vibrato, pulsation, single cry-breaks, multiple cry-breaks, and cry-breaks conjoined to pitch-bends, among other expressive articulations. I show how these articulations are markers both of individual style and working-class tradition, and are carefully used to shape the interpretation of particular songs texts and genres. I argue that this subtle grammar of vocal style is a crucial aesthetic dimension of country music as a vernacular musical style, which has never been adequately analyzed in the country music literature, in which a mythology of country as aesthetically simplistic and technically unsubtle music misinforms both positive and negative critical perspectives on the genre. 12:00 8E4 Icons of Style, Indexes of Identity: Country Singing in San Carlos David Samuels, University of Massachusetts In this paper I will focus on vocal timbre as an element of style in the performance of country music on the San Carlos Apache reservation in southeastern Arizona. Based on data recorded in rehearsals, performances, and conversations with a number of country musicians in the community, I will discuss how singers manipulate the phonological space of vocal production to avoid vocal timbres coded as "redneck" or "hillbilly." The popularity of country western music in Native American communities across the United States is undeniable, and has been a locus of ethnomusicological interest for some time. A number of authors have argued that indigenous "identity" is revealed in the "hybridization" of native and popular styles. In this paper I propose two additional arguments. First: there is an imperfect fit between country music's class-based feelingfulness and the individual or community histories of San Carlos. Second: the enjoyment of country music in San Carlos is inseparable from community members' consciousness of this imperfect fit, and thus country's repertoire of expressive vocalization is often resisted at the level of phonology and sung timbre. In the paper I bring together four features relating to music, language, and symbolic activity: iconity, indexicality, syntacticity, and consciousness or ideology. I argue that, as indexical features of musical production become felt as syntactic, they are likewise felt as iconic. I argue further that stylistic consciousness in San Carlos is poltically engaged, and thus, in turn, recognizes and severs the naturalness of this created iconicity. 12:20 8E5 Metaphors of Sound: Structure and Use in Music Production Thomas Porcello, Vassar College This paper explores the phonological, semantic, cross-sensorial, and performative structuring of metaphoric descriptions of musical timbre. Using English data recorded from naturally occurring speech and via elicitation during studio sessions in Central Texas, I analyze how audio engineers and studio musicians discursively negotiate mapping musical sound to linguistic sense and reference. I argue that, contrary to popular opinion, metaphoric descriptions of musical sound (often focused on timbral features) are not mere jargon, nor collections of subjectively deployed vocabulary items. Rather, the use of metaphors among musicians and engineers often reveals structured semantic fields, and thereby provides a highly efficient means for communicating fine-grained information about musical acoustics. The paper highlights three structuring features: acoustic iconicity, synaesthetic semanticity, and verbal performance. The first concerns words whose vowel and consonant shapes are at least partially mimetic with the musical timbre in question, while the second refers to metaphors relying more strictly on linguistic (and cultural) meaning for their salience. Both kinds of metaphors frequently draw from senses other than hearing, despite being used to point to acoustic phenomena. Verbal performance, defined here as the strategic deployment of linguistic suprasegmentals in conversation, is frequently used by interlocutors to further link linguistic meaning and musical sounds. I argue that as evolving recording and reproduction technology has increasingly linked commercial musical appeal to the aesthetics of recorded sound, audio engineers and studio musicians have thus developed a systematic technical vocabulary built around metaphor, and that shared competence in its use is crucial for professional competence. 1:30-2:30 Performance Workshop--"Making Hard Stuff Easy: Balinese Rhythm, Trust, and the Defiance of Entrainment" Michael Bakan, Florida State University Using methods derived from reflection on my own experiences in Bali as a student of beleganjur drumming (as explored in my book Music of Death and New Creation, University of Chicago Press, 1999 [in press], I will teach the participants in this workshop to perform complex Balinese interlocking rhythms with their voices and their hands. The specific musical materials and pedagogical techniques employed will serve to exemplify broader conceptual strategies for teaching complicated rhythms in the classroom or in other settings, the kinds of rhythms that are relegated to the "too hard" category in most teaching situations. My own experiences as both a music learner in Bali and a gamelan and percussion teacher and clinician in the United States have convinced me that the difficulties many Western music learners--even highly competent musicians--experience in the domain of rhythmic competence stem more from matters of mental attitude and worldview than from anything inherently "musical." By facilitating a shifting of attention to different ways of thinking and not thinking about rhythmic structure and execution, I hope in this session to both offer practical guidelines on improving rhythmic skills and stimulate dialogue on the role and potential of intercultural musical experience in fundamental and advanced musicianship. 1:30-3:00 Video: Bomba: Dancing the Drum Roberta L. Singer, City Lore Bomba is the only music and dance genre that clearly reveals Puerto Rico's African heritage. The Cepeda family of Santurce, Puerto Rico, is known as the "patriarch family of bomba." In the face of often overwhelming odds the family has struggled throughout this century to preserve and perpetuate the bomba tradition within their family as a Puerto Rican cultural expression. The patriarch of the family, Don Rafael Cepeda, was awarded an NEA National Heritage Fellowship for ensuring this "paramount expression of Puerto Rico's African heritage for future generations." "Bomba: Dancing the Drum" is a 60-minute documentary in which the Cepeda family and their bomba tradition each provide the lens through which the other can be experienced and understood. The work contains moving cinema verite scenes, compelling interviews with members of the Cepeda family, and stunning performances filmed at community and family bomba events ("bombazos") including the funeral of Don Rafael, and in rehearsal for performance. Its aim is to situate bomba in its family, community and historical contexts while showing the complexity of the genre as an artistic expression. 1:30-2:00 Video: Play Tabla Frances Shepherd, Kingston University Play Tabla is an instructional video with a companion manual. The video was completed in March 1999 in collaboration with ETRC (Educational Technical and Resources Centre) at Oxford University and the manual on which it is based was published in 1992. The authors of the manual are Pandit Sharda Sahai and Frances Shepherd. The tabla is an extremely popular instrument in the UK with people from all ethnic groups, ages, and backgrounds wishing to learn it. Tabla classes abound in all cities with sizable populations of people whose roots are in the Indian sub-continent. Several teach-yourself manuals are available and stocks in specialist instrument shops are constantly being depleted by keen students of tabla. Despite the great demand for a teaching video this is the first one on the market in the UK. Pandit Sharda Sahai is a traditional musician and he provides the teaching in the video, either to students on set or directly to camera. Explanations of all technical terms are given along with notations of the strokes and pieces taught. The method of teaching used is based on the traditional method of teaching and a western approach to teaching and explaining technique. Sharda Sahai provides several performances. The script was written by Caroline Howard Jones, a student of Sharda Sahai. The video is just under two hours long and in eight sections. It was filmed and edited by ETRC at Oxford University. 2:00-2:30 Video: Wayang golék: Performing arts of Sunda (West Java) Martin Clayton, Open University Wayang golék is the rod-puppet theater tradition of Sunda (West Java), a vibrant mixture of storytelling, songs, and instrumental music. This video introduces the wayang golék tradition, focusing on puppeteer, musician, and puppet maker Atik Rasta and his family. Footage from an all-night performance, recorded live in Java, is combined with interviews in which the artists describe their art and family history. This film, made by a BBC team for the Open University, is concerned with Sudanese performing arts and their practitioners, issues of change and adaptation, and the place of the performing arts in Sudanese culture. Sunday, November 21 Session 9A Music in Diaspora Communities 8:30-10:30 Sunday November 21 Chair: Timothy Rice, University of California, Los Angeles 8:30 9A1 A Question for Gomidas Laura Osborn, University of California, Los Angeles Gomidas Vartabed--ethnomusicologist, priest, scholar--is possibly the best known figure in Armenian music. My aim in this paper is not to further canonize this man and his work, but rather to explore the causes and implications of widespread acknowledgment of his centrality to Armenian music. A discussion of Gomidas and his work can focus the question, what is Armenian about Armenian music? He himself, as well as his research, embodied the confluence of East and West that frequently characterizes Armenian culture. Gomidas was schooled in Berlin around the turn of the century, and collected thousands of folk tunes from several cultures around the Anatolian plateau, with a focus on the music of Armenian peasants. Gomidas invites contemplation of the multiple interpretations of the material available to us. For example, his writing reveals an affection for the folk, a perspective which has been as variously interpreted as the songs he collected. Some analysts now suggest that his work aimed to distill the Armenian folk tradition from outside influences, while others focus on Gomidas' analysis of folk music which created the basis for a national style of composition. I suggest that our understanding must also consider the academic times in which Gomidas worked, and look at the romantic canvas on which Western-minded researchers painted in the early 1900s. The paper will include historical and theoretical background, discussion and playing of musical examples, and explorations of the topic as part of Armenian studies and ethnomusicology. 9:00 9A2 What Color is Music? Julia Banzi, University of California, Santa Barbara In this presentation, I explore the concept of creating, perpetuating, and successfully marketing a need and desire for the traditionally despised. Within the context of the popular music industry, I examine possible scenarios as to the tremendous success and popularity of Gypsy music in the 90's. Simultaneously, rampant and international persecution of Roma "Gypsies" continues by private citizens and Governments alike and shows little signs of relenting. In "What Color is Music," I explore how a careful selection of descriptive adjectives, color choice, text and symbolism are subtly combined and orchestrated with past romantic images, forming a mutually supportive relationship reflected in sophisticated marketing and promotional materials. Color choice is pivotal in this commercial representation of music and certain musics are often consciously or unconsciously associated with certain colors. A simple change in color can profoundly affect our perceptions of the culture, music and musicians. Through an examination of choices in imagery, adjectives and color used by popular media to market Gypsy music, we can hope to come closer to understanding this rare duality of adulation and abomination that Gypsy music and musicians embody for the West, and in so doing, confront the fears and desires of our own society. My work draws from fieldwork in Spain since 1989 and fieldwork in Eastern Europe since 1997. 9:30 9A3 "Songs the Gypsy Played For Us:" "Gypsy Music," Exoticism and "Heimat" during the Nazi Period Brian Currid, Humboldt University Berlin/University of Jena In this paper, I will examine the way in which so-called "gypsy" music functioned as a complex point of social articulation within Germany under the Nazi regime. The figure of the "gypsy" was one of the central icons of "degeneracy" in the Nazi period, the ultimate result of which was the brutal mass murder of up to 600,000 "gypsies" by the "Third Reich". But if we look to the evidence of popular culture from the period, we witness the figure of the gypsy developed into a highly complex icon of both "traditional" modes of collectivity and urban, exotic, cosmopolitan capitalist glamour. "Gypsy" music and musicality remained a positive source of fantasy in the Third Reich, even while the machinery of extermination was fully operative. In order to understand this problem, in this paper I examine the relationship between forms of exoticism and the production of an ersatz Heimat in the use of gypsy music and musicality in musical film of the period, and illustrate the two sides of this racial coin and the role of gypsy music in the production of both these complex forms of social fantasy. Shuttling between two ideological poles in the production of an acoustics of national publicity, "gypsy" music and musicality were a central point of contradiction between fantasies of the national and the cosmopolitan in the Nazi period, and illustrate the ways in which these fantasies are mutually determining in the context of modern mass culture. 10:00 9A4 The History of Bhojpuri Song: An Odyssey Across Three Oceans Helen Myers, Central Connecticut State University The displaced songs of an exiled population are the subject of this paper on the topic of Indian village music. The diaspora of Bhojpuri peoples ranges from their homeland--the exhausted farmlands of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar--to outposts of the former Empire: tropical islands of Trinidad, Mauritius, and the Fijian archipelago. The Indian immigrants of these islands recall different versions of the Bhojpuri repertory. The Trinidadians remember songs that are sung today in Ghazipur and Gorakhpur; the Mauritians, songs from Arrah and Chapra, and Fijians, songs from Banaras. This music illumines the crumbling and disorganized papers that constitute the historical accounts of the British system of indentured labor (1934-1017), a cruel scheme under which these once-called "Coolies" were removed from India to man colonial sugarcane plantations. This account of Bhojpuri music across three oceans is more than a tale of marginalization. In Trinidad, Bhojpuri music sings of vitality, growth, musical ingenuity, and the joys of Western harmony; in Mauritius, it rings of prosperity, a thriving local recording industry, of baubles and properly-educated dancing girls, of astute Bombay traders and inscrutable Tamil mendicants; and in Fiji it bitterly weeps for a better land and a better time, for a disinherited people whose livelihood faces extinction in the new millennium, and whose song is accompanied by child tassa drum dancers and penniless dhantal virtuosos. This circumstance--of an Indian peasant people, transported to three islands, united by songs from a bygone age, divided by their new repertories--invites foreign scholars to observe well and report with clear (and pleasing) words how song tells their history. Session 9B Grey-Out, Creativity, and World Music 8:30-10:30 Sunday, November 21 Chair: Eric Charry, Wesleyan University 8:30 9B1 "Give up the Dhol!:" "Grey-out' and Traditional Musician Communities in Rajasthan, India H. Roger White, University of Wisconsin, Madison Ethnomusicological formulations of `grey-out' commonly invoke concern for the effects of market capitalism (via media outlets and popular music) on the integrity or endurance of local music traditions worldwide. Public discussions in India about `tradition' or `local' arts and artists, suggest that this is a timely issue, as alarmed observations about recent changes in Indian cultural life crowd the opinion pages of newspapers and magazines. In the Indian state of Rajasthan, the vitality of local music traditions has long been attributed to the activities of specialist musician caste-communities. In this paper, based on nearly a year of research in Rajasthan, I consider `grey-out' from the perspectives of two related `traditional' musician communities, Dholi and Damami, whose social identity is increasingly less associated with music-making. Through interviews with members of these hereditary musician communities, I encountered two linked, recurring themes. The first is the complex relationship between the social category of `traditional' or `caste musician' in contemporary Rajasthan and the importance of izzat (`honor' or `respect'). When discussing the future, many members of these communities consider `grey-out' a positive or even necessary trend due to the unique social stigma attached to their community and, by extension, their musical activities. The second is that with the explosion of available outlets for popular music there is a progressively declining audience for these musicians. In considering these themes, my paper frames the concept of `grey-out' ethnographically, avoiding both a simplistic nostalgia for the passing of tradition and a reductive overstatement of transformations of musical life in this part of India. 9:00 9B2 "World Music" Before the Global Age: the Case of Indonesia's Kroncong Sarah Weiss, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Discussions of globalization and world music assert that the present moment is unique in human history. Never before have so many musics been available for so many people to listen to nor has making music been so fraught with politically volatile issues. As Tim Taylor puts it, "the ways in which [musicians mix things up] have...partially changed from older modes of cultural interaction in modernity. The dynamics of collaboration, representation, and appropriation create new complicated political and subject positions that shift with increasing frequency" (Global Pop Routledge 1997). Implied is the assumption that the results of these most recent "global" interactions are more compelling than those of the past. The meaning of the past for understanding the present is left unstated. In this paper I will investigate the cultural interactions which fostered the development of Indonesian kroncong at the beginning of the century under Dutch colonial rule and determine the relationship between the shifting identities, collaborations, representations, and appropriations present in kroncong with those described in the discourse on global world musics of today. To suggest, as Viet Erlmann (Public Culture 8/3, 1996) has done, that in contemporary Western culture `the past has been completely supplanted with the logic of the present [and] the modernization process is complete' is to persist in an old, evolutionary understanding of the logics of the past or other cultures. The study of world music today should include understandings of the past and decenter our Western perspective on the topic. 9:30 9B3 The Reception of Christian Pop in Hungary Barbara Rose Lange, University of Houston Christian pop from the U.S. ranks among the most pervasive of mass musical idioms. It exercises influence not only because of its familiar sound, but also through the promotional techniques used by missionaries, who (for those who are receptive to their message) can wield authority on aspects of musical and worship style as well as Biblical exegesis. This paper, based on twenty-four months of fieldwork conducted in Hungary throughout the 1990s, examines the responses to Christian pop by Pentecostal and evangelical believers in Hungary. Christian pop, through its connection with missionary activity, was among the most pervasive representations of Western mass culture in post-Socialist Eastern Europe. I believe that the case of Christian pop illustrates that grey-out is indeed an issue, but that it is dependent upon the social position of the receiving constituency. Young urban believers have completely embraced the idiom, which resembles the familiar and fashionable Europop style. Church authorities approve of the industrial discipline that is evident in Christian pop. But Rom (Gypsy) Evangelicals are indifferent to the style and have created their own genre of Christian song that draws from secular music oriented to a Rom audience. 10:00 9B4 Vallenato: Relocalizing the Global Ana Maria Ochoa, Instituto Colombiano de Antropologia Vallenato is a musical genre which originated in the Atlantic Coast of Colombia and has become the most widespread music in the country and the one which represents Colombia in the international market today. This process of massification has occured via music festivals stimulated by political elites and by the music industry and has generated a fragmentation of the genre into several modalities associated to different ideological issues and circuits of production. Some of these modalities, like that promoted by the Festival of the Valenato Legend of Valledupar or pop vallenato star Carlos Vives, claim adherence to the local, via their record productions or forms of cultural display. In this paper I explore the political consequences of redefinition of the local tradition of vallenato, via iodeologies related to concrete ciruits of music production. Specifically, I explore the relationship between local versions of magical realism (macondismo), world music and return to the local, especially with reference to the style of Carlos Vives and his mode of insertion in the music industry. Session 9C Music and the Sacred 8:30-10:30 Sunday November 21 Chair: Martha Davis, University of Florida at Gainesville 8:30 9C1 Improvisation, Variation, and Divine Embodiment in the Performance of Cuban Santeria Katherine Hagedorn, Pomona College This paper focuses on improvisation, variation, and "embodiment" in the music of the polytheistic Afro-Cuban religion popularly known as santeria. In santeria, musical performance is essential to communicating with deities, known as orichas. Each oricha "owns" particular songs, drum rhythms, and dances, and it is the combination of the oricha's rhythms (played on the sacred batá drums) and praise songs that calls it to earth, "embodying" it, so that it may speak and dance through the body of a possessed devotee. Yet these praise songs and batá rhythms are subject to improvisation and variation by whomever performs them. There are at least two distinct styles of santeria musical performance in Cuba, one from Havana and one from Matanzas, and within each of these regional practices, individual stylists continue to emerge. How closely must a ritual musician follow textual, melodic, and rhythmic archetypes in a religious performance for that performance to be considered effective? How many improvisational liberties can one take before the songs and rhythms are no longer recognizable to the religious practitioners or to the orichas themselves, and thus can no longer evoke the deities? Drawing on my fieldwork over the past ten years with ritual musicians in Cuba and the United States, I will consider a small corpus of praise songs, melodies, and batá rhythms of a primary oricha in order to explore how musicians and other religious practitioners of santeria create and modify rhythm, melody, and movement as a means of "embodying" otherwise abstract images of the divine. 9:00 9C2 Sacred Representations: Hallowed Ground and Festival Bound David Lynch, The University of Texas at Austin/The Austin Chronicle In a June 4, 1998 issue of The New York Times Gerard Kurdjian, Artistic Director of the Fés Festival of World Sacred Music, said: "Ritual aspects have to be performed in specific places...When you take them out of those places, they lose their meaning. But the sacred is something much larger than the liturgical and ritual. The thread that links them is the emotion that all these musics provoke in the heart of the listener." Kurdjian draws a distinction between the liturgical and the sacred, yet removing sacred musics from their respective "specific places" raises additional questions. Once defined, what occurs when sacred music is recontextualized? What happens when third parties, such as record labels and concert promoters, mediate the re-presentation of sacred music for commercial gains? How do the musicians who perform sacred music negotiate this debated terrain? And, finally, how does the interest in sacred music both mirror and distinguish itself from the recent focus on world music in general? Using the Fés Sacred Music Festival as a point of departure, and drawing on my experience as a music writer for Texas cultural weekly The Austin Chronicle, this paper will discuss and investigate what happens when sacred music is put on stage, recontextualized and re-presented. In addition, interviews with musicians and producers will be incorporated, as well as the research of Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, Rouget, Bendix, Ellingson and Baumann. My aim is not to provide answers, but rather to initiate a dialogue of what-and where-is sacred music. 9:30 9C3 The Traditional in the Post-traditional World: Buddhist Monastic Ritual and the Music Industry Pi-yen Chen, University of Chicago This paper studies the contemporary practice of the Chinese Buddhist monastic core liturgy (the daily service) in relation to the music industry. The daily service serves for Buddhism as a forceful constituent of monastic doctrinal enactment and renders the monastery meaningful through displaying its multidimensional representations to society. The tradition of the daily service, nevertheless, is conveyed by the human agents who perceive, interpret, and reinscribe it. The cultural meaning of the daily service becomes mobile, especially when encountering and mingling with the expressive medium of material culture and consumer goods. In this paper I argue that new forms of monastic social relationships and communication are shaped through the exposure of the daily service as a formerly isolated information-system and distinct group-experience of Buddhist monasteries to the wider society by the mass media and the industrial network. In conjunction with the music industry, the daily service becomes an object for integrating monastic and social information and experience. Musical recordings, for example, undermine the relationship between physical location and information access. Such access was formerly only available in face-to-face encounters. The commodification of ritual also complicates the representations of the monastic tradition and the relationships between monastic codes and musical practices. In the post-traditional world, monastic practices and meanings are often redirected through the fluidity of perspectives and technologies that both endure and encourage changes of the tradition, because they help the monastic community to incorporate drastic social transformations into existing cultural frameworks and to distribute inscribed representations of the tradition. Session 9D The Social Significance of Style 8:30-10:30 Sunday, November 21 Chair: John Murphy, Western Illinois University 9:00 9D1 "It just doesn't sound authentic:" Reflections on the Use of Live Instrumentation in Hip-Hop Joseph Schloss, University of Washington The use of digital sampling technology has become central to the practice of hip-hop production. While journalists, academic theorists, and non-hip-hop musicians tend to focus on sampling's relative moral value as a methodology, most hip-hop producers view sampling from an aesthetic perspective. Simply put, sampling is not valued because it is convenient or morally justifiable, but because it is beautiful. When previous studies have viewed hip-hop sampling from an aesthetic perspective, they have tended to present it as an example of postmodern pastiche, with all its attendant theoretical implications: juxtaposition of disparate aesthetic systems, blank parody, fragmentation, lack of historicity, and so forth. While these studies have been valuable, their reliance on the theoretical terminology and paradigms of culture studies carries with it the suggestion that there is no significantly articulated aesthetic discourse that is indigenous to hip-hop music. This is simply not the case. In fact, a hip-hop samplers' discourse does exist, and one of its most telling aspects is its resistance, on aesthetic grounds, to the use of live instrumentation when that option is available. This paper, based on my fieldwork among hip-hop producers, will explore the nature of this resistance, and its implications with regard to a larger hip-hop aesthetic. 9:30 9D2 What Monophony Means: History, Progress and the Development of Polyphonic Music in Turkey and in Europe Robert Labaree, New England Conservatory In the view of the founders of the Turkish Republic in the 1920s there was no mistaking the lessons which history had taught them: the road to modernity led directly westward, unmistakably marked by such enduring monuments of European civilization as secularism, state capitalism and parliamentary government. The linkage between social progress and cultural forms was no less clear to the reformers: in music, the monophonic model of music-making had been superseded, in their view, by the polyphonic one, laid to rest for all time--and for the whole world--during the European renaissance. Today, the relative prestige of polyphony--more specifically, triadic harmony--compared to the traditional Ottoman modal system (makam) still persists in Turkey as a semi-official state ideology, despite an equally persistent nationalist ideology favoring indigenous forms and the gradual increase in the number of schools, performers and recordings of makam music over the past two decades. This paper will attempt to bring traditional Ottoman monophonic modal practice, polyphonic experiments within the makam system and 20th century Turkish opinion into dialogue with the more familiar details of European theory and practice from roughly the 9th to the 15th centuries. While initially the debate over the appropriateness of monophony and polyphony as self-conscious cultural choices for Turkish society may strike westerners as artificial and anachronistic, the image of many centuries of European development methodically compressed into a few decades provides a unique opportunity to reflect on what these developments have in fact meant to the west and to the world. Session 9E Issues of Authenticity: Three Asian Case Studies 8:30-10:30 Sunday, November 21 Chair: Frederick Lau, California Polytechnic State University 9:00 9E1 Amateur Music-Making as a Site for Negotiating Musical Aesthetics: the Korean Case Inok Paek, Queen's University of Belfast The growing `official' interest in the promotion of traditional music (kugak) in Korea needs to be understood in the political, social and cultural climates of Korea in the 1960s which were marked by the notion of `self-reliance'. Although the Korean government initially poured all available resources into rescuing the staggering economy, attention was soon redirected towards overall national development, including the revitalization of traditional culture which had suffered under industrialization and north American cultural and economic domination. This new focus on self-reliance provided a direct challenge to previously held assumptions of the desirability of Westernization and subsequently inevitable abandoning of tradition. With this social background in mind, this paper aims to discuss two specific areas concerning the public perception of kugak. The first part considers reasons for continuing widespread negative attitudes towards traditional music and musicians. The second part discusses the motivations of amateur musicians, particularly housewives in the context of emerging middle-class audiences, and younger urban generations participating in nationalistically inspired musical activities. The paper's conclusion is that the growing motivation to learn traditional music reflects the on-going social revaluing of traditional music. The increasing interest in traditional music-making also mirrors the changing economic and political climate of modern Korea. Moreover, amateur music-making is the site where the diverse motivations of course organizers, professional and amateur musicians and wider society come to merge with the mutual role of constructing a new Korean identity. 9:30 9E2 Chinese Street Opera and the Production of Authenticity in Singapore Tong Soon Lee, University of Durham The concept of authenticity is bounded with issues of identity, nostalgia, and tourism, in the context of inventing and reviving traditions in contemporary societies. The "Traditional Chinese Street Opera" performance series by the Chinese Theatre Circle in Singapore is a case in point. Chinese street opera essentially refers to a performance site, that is, Chinese opera performed on temporary stages in open spaces. It also refers to a performance practice traditionally associated exclusively with professional opera troupes, which are full-time, itinerant groups of performers who earn their living by performing in religious contexts. Beginning in the 1970s, however, there have been state-sponsored street opera performances by amateur opera troupes, which are groups of middle-class opera enthusiasts engaging in operatic practices as a form of recreation. Indeed, amateur troupes have come to represent the Chinese street opera tradition in contemporary Singapore, a phenomenon that raises issues concerning musical performance, group identity, and cultural representation. The Chinese Theatre Circle is an "amateur-turned-professional" opera troupe. Its weekly performance is located in Clarke Quay, a historic site refurbished as a tourist hub juxtaposed with facilities and performance events that are modern and western, traditional and local. More importantly, the performance practice of Chinese Theatre Circle, like that of other amateur troupes, redefines the concept of Chinese street opera through its discourse on authenticity. My paper explores the social and performance dynamics that shape the meanings of authenticity, expressed through, and further generated by, the "Traditional Chinese Street Opera" series. I want to show that the fetish with the "authentic" constitutes a desire to express allegiance to the mainstream culture. More importantly, it effects a process of social distinction through music performance. Index of Presenters Adler, Christopher Allen, Matthew (7F) Aracena, Beth K. (3D2) Atkins, E. Taylor (4D3) Averill, Gage (7B2) Babiracki, Carol (3E4) Bakan, Michael Banzi, Julia (9A2) Barz, Gregory (6C1) Berger, Harris (1B) Berkman, Franya (2E2) Besiroglu, Sehvar (2C4) Booth, Gregory D. (4A3) Bosse, Joanna (6B1) Bowman, Robert (5D) Brett, Thomas (1E3) Brown, Anthony (5F1) Buchanan, Donna (7C) Callen, Jeffrey (4D1) Camino, Suzanne (1D4) Capwell, Charles (5C1) Cavicchi, Daniel (5A4) Chapman, Dale (6D3) Charry, Eric (9B) Chen, Pi-yen (9C4) Chongson, M. Arlene (3D1) Chuse, Loren (1B3) Clark, Jocelyn (2D4) Clayton, Martin (7F3) Coaldrake, A. Kimi (1E2) Cohen, Judah (6E3) Cooley, Timothy J. (4A4) Cornelius, Steven (2F) Creighton, Leigh (7C4) Crook, Larry (8C) Currid, Brian (9A3) Currie, A. Scott (4D2) Davis, Ruth (8B2) DeLapp, Jennifer (1D1) de Mel, Vasana (1A) DeWitt, Mark F. (5D3) Diamond, Beverley (3E1) Douglas, Gavin (7C1) Dudley, Shannon (7B1) Duncan, Stephen (6C2) Emoff, Ron (7A3) Fales, Cornelia (4E1) Fargion, Janet Topp (5B2) Feld, Steven (8E) Feldman, Heidi (7E1) Fenn, John (5B1) Fernandes, Adriana (7C3) Fernandez, Raul (4D4) Florine, Jane L. (2A3) Fox, Aaron (8E3) Garcia, David (2B1) Gaunt, Kyra D. (6B2) Gelfand, Alexander (1C3) Gerstin, Julian (6A3) Gilman, Lisa (3B4) Gooding, Erik D. (5A1) Greene, Paul D. (4E2) Groesbeck, Rolf (8E2) Gross, Kelly (4C3) Guilbault, Jocelyne (5B3) Gunderson, Frank (7B) Guy, Nancy (1A) Hagedorn, Katherine (9C2) Hahn, Tomie (6B3) Harnish, David (4C1) Henry, Edward O. (8B) Herbst, Edward (7E2) Hill, Stephen (3B3) Howard, Keith (2D1) Hughes, David (4C2) Humphreys, Paul W. (3D3) Hwang, Okon (7C2) Jackson, Jason Baird (8D2) Jacobson, Marion S. (6E4) Jairazbhoy, Nazir Ali (7D3) Johnson, Jill (4B3) Johnson, Sherry A. (3C4) Joo, Sunghye (4B2) Kaye, Andrew L. (5A3) Killick, Andrew P. (2D)(7E3) Kisliuk, Michelle (4C3) Kligman, Mark (6E1) Knauer, Lisa (2B2) Knopoff, Steven (1B2) Kobayashi, Eriko (4A1) Koh, Joann (1E1) Koskoff, Ellen (3C) Kramer, Jonathan Labaree, Robert (9D3) Ladkani, Jennifer (7E4) Lam, Joseph S.C. (5F) Lange, Barbara Rose (9B3) Lapidus, Ben (2B3) Lau, Frederick (9E) Lee, Byong Won (2D3) Lee, Tong Soon (9E2) Levine, Victoria Lindsay (8D2) Lightbourn, Alyssa (3C3) Lima, Luiz Fernando (8C3) Locke, David (1C)(4C) Long, Lucy M. (1D2) Lui, Terrance (4B) Lynch, David (9C3) Lysloff, Rene T.A. (6D4) Marcus, Scott (4C4)(7F1) Maurey, Yossi (3C2) Mazo, Margarita (7A) McCann, Anthony (1A)(3A) Meintjes, Louise (2A) Miller, Sara Stone (3B1) Mills, Sherylle (1A) Moehn, Frederick (8C2) Moisala, Pirkko (3E3) Monson, Ingrid (4D) Moore, Robin (2B4) Modirzadeh, Hafez (8B1) Moulin, Jane Freeman (6A4) Muller, Carol (6C3) Murphy, John (9D) Myers, Helen (9A4) Nakamura, Kiwamu (3C1) Nebesh, Daria Lassowsky (8A3) Neeley, Paul (1C1) Nerell, Loren (5C3) Netsky, Hankus (2E1) Nettl, Bruno (8B3) Neuman, Daniel (7D) Noll, William (4A) Oakes, Jason (6A2) Ochoa, Ana Maria (9B4) Olsen, Dale (7E) Osborn, Laura (9A1) Paek, Inok (9E2) Perlman, Marc (8B4) Perullo, Alex (2A2) Petzen, Jennifer (2C1) Porcello, Thomas (4E)(8E5) Qureshi, Regula (3D) Racy, Ali Jihad (7A2) Ragland, Catherine (5D2) Ramnarine, Tina K. (1B) Rasmussen, Anne K. (4C5) Rausch, Margaret (2C2) Reily, Suzel Ana Rice, Timothy (9A) Ritter, Jonathan (6D1) Rodger, Gillian M. (5A2) Sager, Rebecca D. (7A1) Samuels, David (8E4) Sandstrom, Boden (4E3) Sanjek, David (3A)(5E) Savaglio, Paula (4B1) Scales, Christopher (8D3) Schloss, Joseph (9D1) Schrag, Brian (3B2) Schuyler, Philip (5B) Scruggs, T.M. (6C4) Seeger, Anthony (3A) Sercombe, Laurel (3A) Shank, Bradley C. (2A1) Sharp, Charles (6A1) Sheen, Dae-Cheol (2D5) Shelemay, Kay Kaufman (6E) Shepherd, Frances Simonett, Helena (8C1) Singer, Roberta L. Slobin, Mark (2E1) Solis, Ted (4C6) Solomon, Thomas (8E1) Spiller, Henry (5C2) Stock, Jonathan (4A2) Summit, Jeffrey A. (6E2) Talmage, Matthew (1C2) Thorne, Cory W. (1D3) Tolbert, Elizabeth (8A1) Trasoff, David (7D1) Tsukada, Kenichi (1C4) Tuttle, Pauline (8D1) Um, Hae-Kyung (2D2) Usner, Eric Martin (6D2) Vetter, Roger (4C8) Wallach, Jeremy (4E4) Wang, Oliver (5F2) Waterman, Christopher (3B) Weidman, Amanda (7F2) Weintraub, Andrew (7B3) Weiss, Sarah (9B2) White, H. Roger (9B1) Widdess, Richard (7D2) Wienrich, Inis (2C3) Williams, Maria (7B4) Winant, S. Louis (5D1) Wissler, Holly Wolf, Richard (8A2) Wolitz, Seth L. (2E4) Wong, Deborah (5F3) Wong, Isabel K. F. (1E4) Yoon, Paul (5F4) Zheng, Su (5F5)
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